Способы выражения возможности( possibility ) в английском языке( can , could , may , be to ).

 

Possibility.
a) possibility due to circumstances:
Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый.
You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно его за это винить.
I couldn’t take your coat without paying you for it.
b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:
In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление.
The Lower House alone can initiate financial measures. Только Палата представителей может выносить на рассмотрение финансовые вопросы.
c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility):
The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not yet perfect.)
In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”.
The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope иногда бывает бурным.
Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.
Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда?

This can’t be true. (It is impossible that this is true.)

 

Possibility of the fact (the so-called “factual possibility”).This meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences.
You may find all the books you want in the National Library. (It is possible that you will find...)
The railways may be improved. (It is possible that the railways will be improved.)
The above sentence could suggest that there are definite plans for improvement.
May expressing possibility is avoided in questions and in negative sentences, instead can is used.

 

The modal verb to be to implies possibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect infinitive is used:

Where is the coach to be found? А где можно найти тренера?

The modal verb to be to in questions beginning with interrogative adverb how also expresses possibility:

How am I to know that you’re telling the truth? Откуда мне знать, что вы говорите правду?

 

Способы выражения вероятности (proBability) в английском языке.

 

The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.

Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное.
You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I’m not certain).

Вы, наверное, уже проголодались.

Apples ought to grow well here.

Здесь должны хорошо расти яблоки.

If he started at nine he ought to be here by four (he will probably be here by four).

There oughtn’t to be any difficulty (it’s unlikely that there will be).

Black Beauty is the horse that ought to win the race(... is likely to win...).
In this sense ought is a weaker equivalent of must when the latter denotes near certainty.

Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you could.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!

 

Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs.

Probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the present or future).
The effect of the tax should be felt in high prices (will probably be felt).

We needn’t get ready yet. The guests shouldn’t come for another hour.

Гости вряд ли придут раньше, чем через час.

 

СПОСОБЫ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ ДОЛЖЕНСТВОВАНИЯ(OBLIGATION) В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

OBLIGATION IN ENGLISH MAY BE EXPRESSED BY MODAL VERBS: MUST, TO HAVE TO, TO BE TO, SHOULD, OUGHT TO.

MUST

Must followed by the non-perfect common infinitive may express:

Immediate obligation or necessity, moral obligation referring to the future. This meaning occurs in positive statements and questions.

We must begin before five, or we shan’t finish in time for our supper.

He must move the furniture himself. I can’t help him.

Must you really go so soon?

In this sense the verb must corresponds to the Russian надо, нужно, должен.

Do it if you must (если нужно, делайте).

I must go now (мне нужно идти).

Must expresses obligation or compulsion from the speaker’s viewpoint (unlike ‘have to’, which involves some other authority than the speaker, such as official regulations, etc.).

You must be back at 2 o’clock. I want you to do some cooking.

You must call me Sir (I like it that way).

Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future, in reported speech they may refer to the past. James said we must invite the Stewarts to dinner.

Future obligations can be made more precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to.

I’ll have to read it again.

Since the negative form of must denotes a negative obligation or sometimes prohibition, it cannot express absence of necessity which is expressed by needn’t.

- Must I go? - No, you needn’t, if you don’t want to.

Must is used interchangeably with to be to for instructions, notices, or orders.

Passangers must cross the lines by the footbridge (the railway company instructs them to).

Applications for admission to the Students’ Room of the Department of Manuscripts must be

accompanied by a letter of recommendation.

This card must be surrendered with your room key on vacating Astor College.

All rooms must be vacated by 11 a.m. and the keys handed to the porter on the day of departure.

Guests must be out of the building by midnight.

In all the above cases must is preferable.

With a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a command.

You must be careful.

You must go now. I want to go to bed.

 

TO HAVE TO

Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must (1). It corresponds to the Russian приходится,вынужден. Ex. She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (ей приходится лететь, она вынуждена лететь).

In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation.

We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country (were obliged and did it).

They made such a noise that I had to send one of the boys to make inquiries (it was necessary and I did

it).

Have to replaces must where must cannot be used:

a) to express past necessity or obligation We had to do it again.,

b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of needn’t), since must not means prohibition, You don’t have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy will be quite satisfactory

c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb have to makes the obligation more precise. You’ll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train.

Have to as a modal verb can be used together with the modal verb may:

We may have to wait long here. - Нам возможно придется долго здесь ждать.

Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. The difference lies in that have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action.

Do you have to get up early every morning?

Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning?

 

TO BE TO

To be to expresses:

An obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and questions.

We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.)

When is the wedding to be?

When am I to come?

The ship was to dock on Sunday.

I was to meet Mother at the dentist’s at 11.

The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the action did or did not take place. On the other hand this form is the only way to indicate a fulfilled action in the past.

To emphasize that the action did not take place the perfect infinitive is used after the past indefinite of the verb to be to.

She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill.

The present indefinite may signify an arrangement (especially official) for the future, or referring to no particular time. Ex! The German Chancellor is to visit France. A knife is to cut with.

 

SHOULD
Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide.

It expresses:

Moral obligation, moral duty, which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences. However ought to is preferable in this sense:

All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don’t).

Студенты должны сдать работу к сегодняшнему дню.

Private firearms should be banned. Личное оружие следует запретить.

Не should phone his parents tonight, but lie probably won’t have time.

Он должен позвонить, но, вероятно, у него не будет времени на это.

If you see anything strange you should call the police.

Если ты увидишь что-то странное, ты должен вызвать полицию.

 

OUGHT TO

Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian следует. You ought to look after your children better (you don’t always do it). Вам следует больше заботиться о детях. When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a desirable action has not been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach. You ought to have helped him (but you didn’t).Вам следовало бы ему помочь.Не ought to have been more careful (he was not careful enough).Ему следовало бы быть более осторожным.