The early days of an automobile

 

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Supply – снабжение

Lag – запаздывать, отставать

Steam-driven – паровой, приводимый в движение паром

Gasoline – бензин

Motorist – автомобилист

Can – канистра

Spare tires – запасные шины

To fine – штрафовать

Transmission – коробка передач

Reliable – надежный

 

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

THE EARLY DAYS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

One of the earliest attempts to propel a vehicle by mechanical power was suggested by Isaac Newton. But the first self-propelled vehicle was constructed by the French military engineer Cugnot in 1763. He built a steam-driven engine which had three wheels, carried two passengers and ran at maximum speed of four miles. The carriage was a great achievement but it was far from perfect and extremely inefficient. The supply of steam lasted only 15 minutes and the carriage had to stop every 100 yards to make more steam.

In 1825 a steam engine was built in Great Britain. The vehicle carried 18 passengers and covered 8 miles in 45 minutes. However, the progress of motor cars met with great opposition in Great Britain. Further development of the motor car lagged because of the restrictions resulting from legislative acts. The most famous of these acts was the Red Flag Act of 1865, according to which the speed of the steam-driven vehicles was limited to 4 miles per hour and a man with a red flag had to walk in front of it.

Motoring really started in the country after the abolition of this act.

From 1860 to 1900 was a period of the application of gasoline engines to motor cars in many countries.

In 1896 a procession of motor cars took place from London to Brighton to show how reliable the new vehicles were. In fact, many of the cars broke for the transmissions were still unreliable and constantly gave trouble.

The cars of that time were very small, two-seated cars with no roof, driven by an engine placed under the seat. Motorists had to carry large cans of fuel and separate spare tires, for there were no repair or filling stations to serve them.

After World War I it became possible to achieve greater reliability of motor cars brakes became more efficient. Constant efforts were made to standardize common components. Multi-cylinder engines came into use, most commonly used are four-cylinder engines.

Like most other great human achievements, the motor car is not the product of any single inventor. Gradually the development of vehicles driven by internal combustion engine-cars, as they had come to be known, led to the abolition of earlier restrictions. Huge capital began to flow into the automobile industry.

From 1908 to 1924 the number of cars in the world rose from 200 thousand to 20 million; by 1960 it had reached 60 million. No other industry had ever developed at such a rate.

In England there is the famous "Beaulieu Motor Museum" — the home for veteran cars.

The founder of the Museum is Lord Montague, the son of one of England's motoring pioneers, who opened it in 1952 in memory of his father. Lord Montague's father was the first person in England to be fined by the police for speeding. He was fined 5 pounds for going faster than 12 miles per hour!

In the Museum's collection there is a car called the Silver Ghost which people from near and far go to see. It was built by Rolls-Royce in 1907, and called the Silver Ghost because it ran so silently and was painted silver.

There is a car called The Knight. It is the first British petrol-driven car. Its top speed was only 8 m.p.h. In the Museum there is also a two-seater car, built in 1903.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Приводимый в движение паром, максимальная скорость, великое достижение, законодательные акты, запреты, транспортные средства, применение бензиновых двигателей, автомобильные заправочные станции, надежность автомобилей, многоцилиндровые двигатели, четырехцилиндровый двигатель, отмена запретов, автомобильная промышленность, быть оштрафованным за превышение скорости, свыше 12 миль в час.

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. Who was the first to suggest the idea of propelling vehicle by mechanical power?

2. Whom was a self-propelled vehicle constructed by?

3. When and in what country was a steam engine built?

4. What do you know about the Red Flag Act of 1865?

5. When did it become possible to achieve greater reliability of the cars?

6. What was the number of the cars by 1960?

7. What can you say about the Museum of veteran cars?

8. What was the speed of the first British petrol-driven car?

 

Ex. 5. Match the synonyms.

1. gasoline 2. spare 3. supply 4. fine 5. abolition 6. automobilist

a) provision b) penalty c) motorist d) petrol e) reserve f) cancellation

 

Ex.6. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

The carriage was a great achievement but it was far from perfect and extremely inefficient.

 

Ex. 7. Summarize the text.

 

 

UNIT 4

TYPES OF ENGINES

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Expenditure – расход, затрата

Combustion chamber – камера сгорания

Integral – неотъемлемый, полный, целый

Turbine – турбина

Power-plant – силовая установка

Electric-generating – энергогенерирующий

Fixed – неподвижный, закрепленный

Close – закрытие, запирание

Fitting – монтаж, подгонка, сборка

Piston – поршень

Torque – крутящий момент

Provision – предосторожность

Gear to – соединять, входить в зацепление

Clutch – сцепление

Disengage – выводить из зацепления, расцеплять

Crank – пусковая рукоятка

Rope wound – заводной трос

Flywheel – маховик

Inertia starter– инерционный стартер (с маховиком)

Explosive starter – взрывной стартер

Blank cartridge – патрон с холостым зарядом

 

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

TYPES OF ENGINES

Internal-combustion engine, any type of machine that obtains mechanical energy directly from the expenditure of the chemical energy of fuel burned in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the engine. Four principal types of internal-combustion engines are in general use: the Otto-cycle engine, the diesel engine, the rotary engine, and the gas turbine. The Otto-cycle engine, named after its inventor, the German technician Nikolaus August Otto, is the familiar gasoline engine used in automobiles and airplanes; the diesel engine, named after the French-born German engineer Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel, operates on a different principle and usually uses oil as a fuel. It is employed in electric-generating and marine-power plants, in trucks and buses, and in some automobiles. Both Otto-cycle and diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke cycle models.

The essential parts of Otto-cycle and diesel engines are the same. The combustion chamber consists of a cylinder, usually fixed, that is closed at one end and in which a close-fitting piston slides. The in-and-out motion of the piston varies the volume of the chamber between the inner face of the piston and the closed end of the cylinder.

Unlike steam engines and turbines, internal-combustion engines develop no torque when starting, and therefore provision must be made for turning the crankshaft so that the cycle of operation can begin. Automobile engines are normally started by means of an electric motor or starter that is geared to the crankshaft with a clutch that automatically disengages the motor after the engine has started. Small engines are sometimes started manually by turning the crankshaft with a crank or by pulling a rope wound several times around the flywheel. Methods of starting large engines include the inertia starter, which consists of a flywheel that is rotated by hand or by means of an electric motor until its kinetic energy is sufficient to turn the crankshaft, and the explosive starter, which employs the explosion of a blank cartridge to drive a turbine wheel that is coupled to the engine. The inertia and explosive starters are chiefly used to start airplane engines.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Получение механической энергии от затрат химической энергии сжигаемого топлива, неотъемлемая часть, бензиновый двигатель, работать по другому принципу, составные части двигателя, камера внутреннего сгорания, паровой двигатель, двигатель внутреннего сгорания, выводить из состояния сцепления, приводить в движение коленчатый вал с помощью пусковой рукоятки, инерционный стартер, вращение маховика вручную, задействовать патрон с холостым зарядом для запуска турбины.

 

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. What is an internal-combustion engine?

2. What types of engines are in general use now?

3. Who was an inventor of gasoline engine used in automobiles today?

4. What is the origin of diesel engines?

5. What are the advantages of internal combustion engines when starting?

6. What is normal starting of an automobile engine?

7. What is manual starting of engines?

8. What methods of starting large engines do you know?

9. What kinds of starters are chiefly used to start airplane engines?

 

Ex. 5. Match the synonyms.

1. engineer 2. manufactured 3. essential 4. motion 5. provision 6. by means of 7. manually 8. sufficient

a) with the help of b) by hand c) appropriate d) basic e) technician f) movement g) precaution h) produced

 

Ex.6. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

The inertia and explosive starters are chiefly used to start airplane engines.

 

Ex. 7. Summarize the text.

 

UNIT 5

OTTO-CYCLE ENGINES

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Compress – сжимать, сдавливать

Four-stroke engine – четырехтактный двигатель

Simultaneously – одновременно

Exert – оказывать (действие)

Exhaust valve – выпускной клапан

Ratio – коэффициент

High-octane – высокооктановый

Antiknock – высокооктановое число, антидетонатор

Percentage – процентное содержание

Suck – поглощать, всасывать

Compression ratios - степень сжатия

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

OTTO-CYCLE ENGINES

The ordinary Otto-cycle engine is a four-stroke engine; that is, in a complete power cycle, its pistons make four strokes, two toward the head (closed head) of the cylinder and two away from the head. During the first stroke of the cycle, the piston moves away from the cylinder head while simultaneously the intake valve is opened. The motion of the piston during this stroke sucks a quantity of a fuel and air mixture into the combustion chamber. During the next stroke, the piston moves toward the cylinder head and compresses the fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. At the moment when the piston reaches the end of this stroke and the volume of the combustion chamber is at a minimum, the fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug and burns, expanding and exerting a pressure on the piston, which is then driven away from the cylinder head in the third stroke. During the final stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and the piston moves toward the cylinder head, driving the exhaust gases out of the combustion chamber and leaving the cylinder ready to repeat the cycle.

The efficiency of a modern Otto-cycle engine is limited by a number of factors, including losses by cooling and by friction. In general, the efficiency of such engines is determined by the compression ratio of the engine. The compression ratio (the ratio between the maximum and minimum volumes of the combustion chamber) is usually about 8 to 1 or 10 to 1 in most modern Otto-cycle engines. Higher compression ratios, up to about 15 to 1, with a resulting increase of efficiency, are possible with the use of high-octane antiknock fuels. The efficiencies of good modern Otto-cycle engines range between 20 and 25 percent—in other words, only this percentage of the heat energy of the fuel is transformed into mechanical energy.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Впускной клапан, движение поршня, подвергать компрессии топливную смесь, свеча зажигания, увеличение давления на поршень, выхлопные газы, коэффициент полезного действия современных двигателей, компрессионный коэффициент работы двигателя, механическая энергия, тепловая энергия сгораемого топлива.

 

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. What does “a complete power cycle” of ordinary gasoline engines mean?

2. Can you explain what is the first stroke of the cycle?

3. What is the movement of the piston during next two strokes (the second and the third)?

4. What is the final stroke of the engine?

5. What factors limit the efficiency of modern Otto-cycle engine?

6. What is the compression ratio?

7. What are compression ratios of good modern Otto-cycle engines?

 

Ex. 5. Find the antonyms to the underlined words.

1. complicated

a) expensive; b) simple; c) similar; d) numerous.

2. shortage

a) current; b) delay; c) distance; d) plenty.

3. to remain

a) to lend; b) to be; c) to measure; d) to stretch.

4. to destroy

a) to drag; b) to pave; c) to restore; d) to step.

5. huge

a) small; b) strong; c) free; d) hard.

6. to connect

a) to charge; b) to collapse; c) to introduce; d) to part.

7. gradually

a) also; b) at once; c) chiefly; d) rather.

8. repair

a) pay; b) remark; c) surface; d) damage.

9. the same

a) due; b) total; c) different; d) essential.

10. strength

a) combustion; b) device; c) weakness; d) force.

11. wide

a) powerful; b) narrow; c) dry; d) necessary.

Ex. 6. Match the synonyms.

1. one moment 2. fuel mixture 3. limitation 4. participate 5. octane number

a) gasoline b)octane value c) one second d) restriction e) share

 

Ex.7. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

During the next stroke the piston moves toward the cylinder head and compresses the fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.

 

Ex. 8. Summarize the text.

 

UNIT 6

DIESEL-CYCLE ENGINES

 

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Constant – постоянный

Volume – объем, масса, емкость, вместимость

Compression – сжатие, давление, уплотнение

Suction – впуск, всасывание

To draw – затягивать

Intake valve – впускной клапан

Air fraction – частица, объем воздуха

Former – прежний, бывший

Approximately – приблизительно

Vaporization – выпаривание, испарение

Instantly – мгновенно, немедленно

To warm up – прогревать

Combustion – воспламенение, возгорание

Exhaust – выпуск, выхлоп

To govern – управлять, регулировать

Inherently – по существу

Disadvantage – недостаток

 

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

DIESEL-CYCLE ENGINES

Theoretically, the diesel cycle differs from the Otto cycle in that combustion takes place at constant volume rather than at constant pressure. A diesel engineis an internal combustion engine which operates using the diesel cycle (named after Dr. Rudolph Diesel). The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of compression ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the final stage of compression. This is in contrast to a petrol (gasoline) engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a fuel/air mixture is ignited by a spark plug. Most diesels are also four-stroke engines but they operate differently than the four-stroke Otto-cycle engines. The first, or suction, stroke draws air, but no fuel, into the combustion chamber through an intake valve. On the second, or compression, stroke the air is compressed to a small fraction of its former volume and is heated to approximately 440°C (approximately 820°F) by this compression. At the end of the compression stroke, vaporized fuel is injected into the combustion chamber and burns instantly because of the high temperature of the air in the chamber. Some diesels have auxiliary electrical ignition systems to ignite the fuel when the engine starts and until it warms up. This combustion drives the piston back on the third or power stroke of the cycle. The fourth stroke, as in the Otto-cycle engine, is an exhaust stroke.

The efficiency of the diesel engine, which is in general governed by the same factors that control the efficiency of Otto-cycle engines, is inherently greater than that of any Otto-cycle engine and in actual engines today is slightly more than 40 percent. Diesels are, in general, slow-speed engines with crankshaft speeds of 100 to 750 revolutions per minute (rpm) as compared to 2500 to 5000 rpm for typical Otto-cycle engines. Some types of diesel, however, have speeds up to 2000 rpm. Because diesels use compression ratios of 14 or more to 1, they are generally more heavily built than Otto-cycle engines, but this disadvantage is counterbalanced by their greater efficiency and the fact that they can be operated on less expensive fuel oils.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Воспламенение от сжатия, постоянный объем, воспламенение от свечи зажигания, всасывать воздух в камеру внутреннего сгорания через впускной клапан, в результате сжатия воздух нагревается приблизительно до 440⁰ С, впрыск топлива в камеру внутреннего сгорания, мгновенное воспламенение, вспомогательная (дополнительная) электрическая система зажигания, прогреть двигатель, частота вращения коленчатого вала от 100 до 750 оборотов в минуту, степень сжатия, недостатки, дешевая топливная смесь, преимущества, недостатки, уравновешивать степень сжатия.

 

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. How does diesel cycle differ from the Otto cycle theoretically?

2. Is diesel engine an internal combustion engine?

3. How does it operate?

4. What is the defining feature of the diesel engine?

5. How does a fuel/air mixture ignite in Otto-cycle engines?

6. Are most diesels four-stroke engines?

7. Is it typical for diesels to have auxiliary electrical ignition systems?

8. What is the first or suction stroke of diesel engines?

9. What happens on the second or compression stroke of diesel engines?

10.What drives the piston back on the third or power stroke of the cycle?

11.What is the fourth stroke?

12.Are there any disadvantages of diesel engines?

Ex. 5. Match the synonyms.

1. constant 2. less expensive 3. feature 4. to ignite 5. to operate 6. final 7. fraction 8. auxiliary 9. actual 10.in general

a) cheap b) permanent c) to work d) the last e) to fire f) characteristic g) modern h) part i) additional j) on the whole

 

Ex.6. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

The fourth stroke, in the Otto-cycle engine, is an exhaust stroke.

 

Ex. 7. Summarize the text.

 

UNIT 7

 

TWO-STROKE ENGINES

 

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Suitable – подходящий

Power (compression) stroke – рабочий ход, рабочий такт

Pressure power – ход давления, ход сжатия

Double – удваивать, дублировать

Displacement – рабочий объем

Lawn mower – газонокосилка

Chain saw – цепная пила

Outboard – наружный, навесной

To introduce – вводить, подавать

Poppet valve – сквозной (проходной) клапан

Sleeve valve – сквозной канал, (полый) клапан

Port – окно, отверстие

Outward – наружный, внешний, движение поршня вниз

Charge – заряд, загрузка

To restrict – ограничивать

Lubricating oil – моторное масло, машинное масло

Hydrocarbons – углеводород

Under arrangements – согласно договорам

Withdrawn – в нижней мертвой точке

 

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

TWO-STROKE ENGINES

By suitable design it is possible to operate an Otto-cycle or diesel as a two-stroke or two-cycle engine with a power stroke every other stroke of the piston instead of once every four strokes. The power of a two-stroke engine is usually double that of a four-stroke engine of comparable size. Thus it develops more power with the same displacement, or can be lighter and yet deliver the same power. For this reason it is used in lawn mowers, chain saws, small automobiles, motorcycles, and outboard marine engines.

The general principle of the two-stroke engine is to shorten the periods in which fuel is introduced to the combustion chamber and in which the spent gases are exhausted to a small fraction of the duration of a stroke instead of allowing each of these operations to occupy a full stroke. In the simplest type of two-stroke engine, the poppet valves are replaced by sleeve valves or ports (openings in the cylinder wall that are uncovered by the piston at the end of its outward travel). In the two-stroke cycle, the fuel mixture or air is introduced through the intake port when the piston is fully withdrawn from the cylinder. The compression stroke follows, and the charge is ignited when the piston reaches the end of this stroke. The piston then moves outward on the power stroke, uncovering the exhaust port and permitting the gases to escape from the combustion chamber.

However, there are several disadvantages that restrict its use. Since there are twice as many power strokes during the operation of a two-stroke engine as there are during the operation of a four-stroke engine, the engine tends to heat up more, and thus is likely to have a shorter life. Also, in the two-stroke engine lubricating oil must be mixed with the fuel. This causes a very high level of hydrocarbons in its exhaust, unless the fuel-air mixture is computer calculated to maximize combustion. A highly efficient, pollution-free two-stroke automobile engine is currently being developed by world Engineering, under arrangements with all auto makers.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Рабочий объем, полный такт, двухтактный цикл, сократить период подачи топлива в камеру сгорания, топливо и воздух поступают через входной канал при полном выходе поршня из цилиндра (в максимально нижнем положении), такт сжатия (рабочий ход), перегреваться, смешивать масло с бензином, высокий уровень содержания углеводорода в выхлопных газах, усилить сгорание.

 

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. Is it possible to operate an Otto-cycle or diesel as two-stroke or two-cycle engine?

2. Do two-cycle engines with the same displacement (as four-cycle engines) develop more power?

3. What are other advantages of two-stroke cycle engines?

4. What is the general operating principle of two-stroke engines?

5. Is there any difference between two and four-stroke engines?

6. What are disadvantages of two-stroke engines?

7. What causes a very high level of hydrocarbons in the exhaust of two-stroke cycle engines?

Ex. 5. Match the synonyms.

1. double 2. withdraw 3. introduce 4. spent gases 5. duration 6. allow 7. simple 8. escape from 9. restrict 10.outward

a) come out b) back c) limit d) twofold e) remove f) to inject g) exhaust gases h) continuance i) permit j) ordinary

 

Ex.6. Complete and translate the sentences.

1. The general principle of two-stroke engine is to …

2. The compression stroke follows and … the end of this stroke.

3. This causes a very high level of ….

4. The piston then moves … uncovering … to escape from the combustion chamber.

5. A highly efficient … is currently being developed ….

Ex.7. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

There are several disadvantages that restrict the use of two-stroke cycle engines.

 

Ex. 8. Summarize the text.

 

UNIT 8

 

ROTARY (WANKEL) ENGINE

Ex. 1 Read and memorize the following words.

Three cornered rotor – треугольный, трехгранный ротор

To draw in – нагнетать

Chamber – корпус, камера

Trapped – удерживаемый

Face – поверхность; передняя часть

Turning – вращение

Expel – вытеснять

Alternately – поочередно

Consequent – последовательный, соответственный

Option – дополнительный агрегат, дополнение

Gravity – сила тяжести

Safe – безопасный, надежный

Bulk – масса, вместимость

Reciprocating – поршневой, возвратно-поступательное движение

Advanced pollution control devices – устройства предварительной регулировки уровня загрязнения

Conventional – общепринятый, обыкновенный

Rotating – вращение

Offset – компенсировать, возмещать

Torque – вращающийся момент

Fuel consumption – расход горючего

Performance – характеристика

Efficiency – коэффициент полезного действия

Innovation – техническое новшество

 

Ex. 2. Find and read sentences with these words in the text given below.

 

TEXT

ROTARY (WANKEL) ENGINE

In the 1950s the German engineer Felix Wankel developed an internal-combustion engine of a radically new design, in which the piston and cylinder were replaced by a three-cornered rotor turning in a roughly oval chamber. The fuel-air mixture is drawn in through an intake port and trapped between one face of the turning rotor and the wall of the oval chamber. The turning of the rotor compresses the mixture, which is ignited by a spark plug. The exhaust gases are then expelled through an exhaust port through the action of the turning rotor. The cycle takes place alternately at each face of the rotor, giving three power strokes for each turn of the rotor. Because of the Wankel engine's compact size and consequent lesser weight as compared with the piston engine, it appeared to be an important option for automobiles. In addition, its mechanical simplicity provided low manufacturing costs, its cooling requirements were low, and its low center of gravity made it safer to drive.

The Wankel engine has 48% fewer parts and about a third the bulk and weight of a reciprocating engine. Its main advantage is that advanced pollution control devices are easier to design for it than for the conventional piston engine. Another advantage is that higher engine speeds are made possible by rotating instead of reciprocating motion, but this advantage is partially offset by the lack of torque at low speeds, leading to greater fuel consumption.

A line of Wankel engine cars was produced in Japan in the early 1970s, and several United States automobile manufacturers researched the idea as well. However, production of the Wankel engine was discontinued as a result of its poor fuel economy and its high pollutant emissions. Nowerdays Mazda, a Japanese car manufacturer, has continued to design and innovate the rotary engine, improving performance and fuel efficiency.

 

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents for the words and word combinations given below.

Двигатель внутреннего сгорания абсолютно новой конструкции, горючая смесь из воздуха и топлива нагнетается через впускной клапан, в результате вращения ротора происходит сжатие смеси, рабочий цикл осуществляется поочередно на передних гранях ротора, масса и вес, простота конструкции, себестоимость (производства), автопроизводители, надежный в управлении.

 

Ex. 4. Answer the following questions.

1. What was developed by the German engineer Felix Wankel?

2. Is there any difference between reciprocating engines and rotary engines?

3. How does fuel-air mixture circulate in a rotary engine?

4. What is the cycle of a rotary engine?

5. What is appeared to be an important option of the Wankel engine?

6. What are the advantages of a rotary engine?

7. What is its main advantage?

8. Were there any manufacturers of Wankel engine cars in the early 1970s?

9. What are disadvantages of a rotary engine?

10. Are there any perspectives of rotary engines?

 

Ex. 5. Match the synonyms.

1. radically 2. design 3. offset 4. bulk 5. to discontinue 6. conventional

a) generally accepted b) mass c) absolutely d) model e) compensation f) to stop

Ex.6. Complete and translate the sentences.

1. The Wankel engine has 48% ….

2. In the 1950s the German ….

3. Its main … conventional piston engine.

4. In addition … made it safer to drive.

5. However … pollutant emissions.

Ex.7. Make up all possible questions to this sentence.

The exhaust gases are then expelled through an exhaust port through the action of the turning rotor.

 

Ex. 8. Summarize the text.

 

UNIT 9