The Most General Classification of Expressive Syntactic Means.

Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices (Supra-phrasal units, Paragraph) 1.Supra-phrasal units 2.The paragraph ( they deal with the composition of utterance larger than the sentence) 3.Stylistic inversion 4.Detached construction ( they deal with compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement)

Within the language as a system, there establish themselves definite types of relations between words, word combinations, sentences and also between larger spends of utterances. The brunch of language science that studies the type of relations between the units enumerated is called syntax.

Supra-phrasal units (SPUs) It generally comprises (вкл) a number of sentences independent by means of pronouns, connectives, tense forms and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with).. So a supra-phrasal unit may be defined as a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity and backed up (усил) by rhythm and melodic unity. Such a span of utterance is also characterized by the fact that it can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence. The principles to single out the supra-phrasal uni t: l. Coherence 2. Interdependence of the elements 3. One definite idea 4.The purport of the writer (to make the desired impact on the reader)

The paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by the indentation (отступ) at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. It's also marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses, semantic ties. the more difficult is to follow the purpose of the writer. In newspaper style however, most paragraphs consist of 2-3 sentences. Paragraphs are classified from the point of view of the logical sequence of the sentence. Models of paragraphs: l. From the general to the part or vice versa 2.From cause to effect and vice versa 3.Based on contrast or comparison. A paragraph generally has a topic sentence which embodies the main idea. It may be placed at the beginning, end, in the belles-lettres style it may be placed anywhere.

12. The belle-letters functional style.

The purpose is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the b-l style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically. Linguistic features: 1. genuine imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. 2. the use of words in contextual and in more than one dictionary meaning. 3. a vocabulary which reflects the author’s personal evaluation of things. 4. a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax. 5. the introduction of the typical features of colloquial language. a) Language of poetry. Verse is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances.. Both the syntactical and semantic aspects of the poetic substyle are held in check by rhythmic patterns. Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical peculiarities.Rhythm and rhyme are distinguishable properties. The most important is the power of the words used in poetry to express more than they usually signify in ordinary language. b) Emotive prose. The imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry; the percentage of words with contextual meanings is not so high as in poetry. It is a combination of the literary variant of the language with the colloquial variant. It is more exact to define it as a combination of the spoken and written varieties of the language; there are always 2 forms of communication present – monologue and dialogue.Here we find elements of the newspaper style, the official style, the style of scientific prose. c) Language of the drama. The language of plays is entirely dialogue. The author’s speech is almost entirely excluded, except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions.Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure and the language of plays is of the type which is meant to be reproduced.

13. Publicist Style (Journalese). The major functions of the publicist style: social influence and public opinion manipulation; informative function. Additional functions: propaganda, popularization, education, organiziation, analysis and criticism, hedonism (entertainment). Stylistic features of the publicist style: interchange of standard and expressiveness, explicit evaluation, affective, impressive character, stylistic effects of "novelty", advertising, mass, group social orientation, factography (documentary precision, abundance of statistics, toponymic and proper names, factual data), neutral or formal manner of presentation, generalization, the use of arguments, multi-stylistic character.

Publicistic style and other functional styles. Publicist style as a sphere of intersection with the style of fiction / essay, sketch, lampoon, satirical article/ and scientific style /commentary, review/. Elements of conversational and official styles. Substyles and genres: publicist style proper /lampoons, articles, essays, sketches, travelogues, memoirs/, political propaganda /slogans, leaflets, proclamations/, journalese /, newspapers style - editorial (leader) article, brief news, or news columns, report, interview, reportage…/, oratory /speeches, parliamentary debates, TV discussions…/ TV and radio journalese, publicist cinematography (documentary, news-reel, etc.). New publicist genres: talk-show, reality-show, role-play show, game-show, debates, TV poll, TV commentary, new types of information programs. Inner differentiation of the publicist style and correlation of functional relevance of its different variations and genres.

14. Newspaper Style. Problems of classification. Newspaper genres: editorial (leading article), newsreel, brief news report, reportage, interview, essay, title, topical satire, advertisement.

Graphic Means of the newspaper style: wide use of graphic means - change of prints, word-arts, italics, various graphic symbols (asterisks, etc.) used for the sake of text limitation as well as elements of compositional arrangement such as columns, titles, subtitles, parts and paragraphs. Language Means of publicist style:

vocabulary: priority of neutral and bookish vocabulary, wide use of language means to actualize chronotop (proper and geographical names, \abundance of statistics, toponymic and proper names, facts and data), means of evaluation, neologisms, social political terminology, a great number of loan-words and international words, use words and word-combinations of other styles (especially, conversational), against the general background of the bookish style vocabulary, including terminology as well as means of imagery to increase expressiveness / trite metaphors, metonymies, personification, metaphorical paraphrases, metaphorical use of terminology/, newspaper terms: newspaper vocabulary and cliches (journalese and bookish), decomposition of phraseological units. Word-building: loan suffixes and prefixes as well as combination of words;

grammatical means: in morphology the use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. Average sentence length (9-11words) and average degree of complexity in the sentence structure. Wide use of declarative sentences. The use of questions, exclamatory sentences for the sake of expressiveness. Means of expressive syntax: inversions, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation, gradation, isolation, different types of the author's words presentation and conversational constructions, different patterns in the use of homogeneous parts of the sentence - double, three-element and multi-element;

compositional and textual means: canonized three-part structure of publicist texts, the principle of “pyramid” and its effects in the composition of modern newspaper text, the use of compositional (foregrounding) devices.

15. Scientific Style. The main function of the scientific style: rational cognition and linguistic presentation of the dynamics of thinking. Other communicative tasks. Inner differentiation and the formation of the sub-styles and genres of the scientific style used in different fields of science, characterized by different manners of scientific presentation. Sub-styles and genres: scientific style proper \ thesis, abstract of thesis, monograph, article, report, abstract of a report...\ popular scientific \ an article, annotations, review, etc.).”Sub-languages” of scientific styles: law, political, medical, economic, technical, computer, linguistic, etc. Types of presentation: description and argumentation (deduction, induction). Different degree of polemics. Popularization of the scientific text. The addressee factor. Peculiarities of scientific communication: planned, prepared delayed in time communication (except for lectures and reports). Style-forming features: great role of tradition in the use of language means, objective and non-categorical presentation, specific means of expression, a certain extent of emphasis, restrictions in the use of intensification, evaluation, emotional language means, absence of imagery. Language means of the scientific style:

lexical means - highly specialized scientific terminology, terminological groups, revealing the conceptual systems of the scientific style, the peculiarities of the use of terms in scientific speech, the use of nouns and verbs in abstract meanings, special reference words, scientific phraseology - clichés, stereotyped and hackneyed word combinations and idioms, priority of neutral vocabulary, limitations in the use of emotional- evaluative and expressive vocabulary and phraseology, absence of non-literary vocabulary and phraseology (slang words, vulgarisms, obscene words), peculiarities in word- building (standard suffixes and prefixes, mainly of Greek and Latin origin – tele-, morpho, philo- -ism, etc.), peculiarities in the scarce use of imagery (usually trite and hackneyed, the priority of the functions of intensification and decoration, non-systematic, narrow contextual character, absence of rich associations, schematic and generalized character);

grammatical means: nominal character (the predominance of nouns over verbs) in the use of parts of speech, the use of prepositional “of-phrases” to substitute the genitive case, transposition of the classes of nouns, wide use of the Passive Voice, Indefinite Tenses, specialization of pronouns in demonstrative and intensification functions, numerous conjunctions revealing the logical order of the text as well as double conjunctions (not merely... but also, whether... or both... and, as...as), adverbs of logical connectuin;

syntactical means: priority of full, logically correct, regular syntactical models, the syntax of simple sentence in the scientific speech - extensive use of extended two-member sentence, priority in the use of compound sentences, extensive use of secondary predicative constructions (Complex Object, Participial and Gerundial Constructions), wide use of conjunctions and denominative prepositions, concise expression of syntactical connection in word combinations, sentences, groups of sentences, absolute priority of declarative sentences in the use of communicative types of sentences;

composition of scientific text as an explication of the stages of cognition and productive thinking, the usual model is presented by the following scheme - a problem situation, idea, hypothesis, proof, conclusion, compositional speech forms of discussion, argumentation and description, conclusion, types of narration, wide-spread co-referential repetition as a specific method of text development.