What comes before and after?

.................... → NOTE-MAKING →....................

3. You are writing an essay on ‘Conservation at sea’. You find the following article in a magazine called Science South, volume 27 (2002). The author is

J. Doyle. Read the text (key points in italic) and make notes.

STUDYING SQUID

Before the British occupation of the Falkland Islands in 1833 most of the sailors who went there were mainly interested in collecting oil and skins from the whales, seals and penguins which flourished in the South Atlantic. The British introduced sheep farming, but since this became less profitable after the 1960s the islanders have been forced to pay more attention to the contents of the island waters.

These waters are rich in squid, and the sale of fishing licences for this harvest has funded research to allow the stocks to be managed efficiently. There are two kinds of squid around the Falklands; Illex is eaten in East Asia, while Loligo is popular in Spain. The latter was found to breed at two periods in the year; one season is May to July and the other is October and November. This second period, which is summer in the South Atlantic, coincides with the local penguin breeding season and makes the baby squid more vulnerable. As a result, the scientists suggested that the fishing season for Loligo should be postponed for a few months to allow the stock to recover, and when this was done the fishermen found that they had a better catch than before.

The other squid, Illex, was found to have a different pattern, swimming south from Brazil to the Falklands in summer, and then back north again. To deal with a species that migrates through the waters of several countries it has been necessary to set up an agreement between the governments concerned to restrict the fishing season in order to allow squid numbers to build up.

4. A set of notes for your essay might look like this:

Source: Doyle, J. (2002) Science South 27 pp. 24–28.

Falkland Islands – research programme found:

SQUID a) Illex (E. Asia) – N/S migration pattern from Brazil

b) Loligo (Spain) – breeds i) May – July

ii) Oct – Nov

suggested:

a) postpone Loligo fishing (improved catch)

b) restrict Illex fishing by int. agreement

Note the use of headings, listings, abbreviations (‘N/S’) and symbols. You need to develop your own style for note-making, as you will have to read them later. Do not abbreviate too much, or you may find the notes impossible to understand in the future.

5. You have been told to write an essay on ‘Malaria – can it be controlled?’ You decide to make notes on the following article from a magazine called Medical Report (Volume 34 1998, pp. 78–86). The author’s name is Irene Nemecova. Make notes on the whole text in the box below.

MALARIA FIGHTS BACK

Drug-resistant strains of malaria, already one of the world’s major killers, are steadily spreading across the globe. The deadly strains have established themselves in South East Asia and South America, and have recently begun to spread across India and Africa. Formerly under control in many areas, the disease now threatens two billion people living in more than 100 countries.

Estimates suggest that there are now more than 350 million cases of malaria a year – a total four times the level of the early 1970s. In Africa alone the disease kills one million children each year.

Several factors are responsible for this disturbing development. Spreading world poverty has deprived nations of funds for sanitation, so that many health projects have been stopped, while increased movements of migrant workers and tourists have carried infections more rapidly from one country to another. At the same time, the overuse of drugs, especially antibiotics, has led to the establishment of resistant strains of diseases.

As well as this, hopes that genetic engineers might soon develop the world’s first malaria vaccine, a long-sought goal, have been questioned recently by several scientists. ‘There are so many strains of malaria parasite,’ said one scientist, ‘and each is able to alter its chemicalsurface and trick its way past the body’s defences. We’d need a remarkable vaccine to cope with that. However, a malaria vaccine is now undergoing human trials and may be available for use if proved successful.’

6. You are preparing to write an essay on ‘The impact of climate on history’. The text below is taken from page 221 of a book called Volcanic Disasters by E.B. Pitnam, published in 1993. Underline the relevant points and make notes.

One of the greatest explosions in modern history occurred in 1815, when an Indonesian volcano called Mt. Tambora blew up. The eruption involved about 100 cubic kilometres of material being blown into the sky, with huge loss of life both on land and sea. Large quantities of volcanic dust were ejected into the atmosphere, and this dust gradually spread around the world, causing alarming events on the other side of the world.

In New England in north eastern USA farmers were hit by bitterly cold weather in June and July 1816. Much of the harvest was lost due to repeated waves of frost and snow in the middle of summer. The same pattern was recorded in Europe, where agriculture was still suffering the effects of the Napoleonic Wars. In France wheat prices reached their highest point of the century in 1817.

As European demand for food rose, prices doubled in America. Although some profited from the shortages, others were driven to emigrate into the unexplored lands to the west. Numbersleaving Vermont, for example, increased by 100% between 1816–17.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing involves changing a text so that it is quite dissimilar to the source yet retains all the meaning. This skill is useful in several areas of academic work, but this unit focuses on using paraphrasing in note-making and summary writing. Effective paraphrasing is vital in academic writing to avoid the risk of plagiarism.

Although paraphrasing techniques are used in summary writing, paraphrasing does not aim to shorten the length of a text, merely to restate the text.

For example,

Evidence of a lost civilisation has been found off the coast of China.

could be paraphrased:

Remains of an ancient society have been discovered in the sea near China.

A good paraphrase is significantly different from the wording of the original, without altering the meaning at all.

Read the text below and then decide which is the best paraphrase, (a) or (b).

Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.

a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river flooding there would not have been enough food.

b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around 2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.

Techniques.

a) Changing vocabulary:

studies > research

society > civilisation

mud > deposits

b) Changing word class:

Egypt (n.) > Egyptian (adj.)

mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)

c) Changing word order:

Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began

4. Find synonyms for the words in italic.

a) Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are ineffective.

Example:

Sleep researchers have found that established cures for insomnia, for instance counting sheep, do not work.

b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly.

c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.

d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting.

5. Change the word class of the words in italic, and then re-write the sentences.

a) A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep.

Example:

A third group was not specially instructed about going to sleep.

b) It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker.

c) Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy.

6. Change the word order of the following sentences.

a) There are many practical applications to research into insomnia.

Example:

Research into insomnia has many practical applications.

b) About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia.

c) It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.

7. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible.

Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are ineffective. Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep quickly. The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups. One group imagined watching a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting. A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep. It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker. Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy. There are many practical applications for research into insomnia. About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia. It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.

8. Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.

Before the last century no humans had visited Antarctica, and even today the vast continent has a winter population of less than 200 people. However, a recent report from a New Zealand government agency outlines the scale of the pollution problem in the ice and snow. Although untouched compared with other regions in the world, the bitter cold of Antarctica means thatthe normal process of decay is prevented. As a result some research stations are surrounded by the rubbish of nearly 60 years’ operations.

Despite popular belief, the polar continent is really a desert, with less precipitation than the Sahara. In the past, snowfall slowly covered the waste left behind, like beer cans or dead ponies, but now, possibly due to global warming, the ice is thinning and these are being exposed. Over 10 years ago the countries using Antarctica agreed a treaty on waste disposal, under which everything is to be taken home, and this is slowly improving the situation. However, the scientists do not want everything removed. The remains of very early expeditions at the beginning of the twentieth century have acquired historical value and will be preserved.

Summary Writing

Making summaries is a common activity in everyday life. If a friend asks us about a book we are reading, we do not tell them about everything in the book. Instead, we make a summary of the most interesting and important aspects. The same principle applies to summarising in academic writing.

1. Choose four of the topics below and write summaries in no more than twelve words each.

Example:

Birmingham is a large industrial city in the English West Midlands.

a) Your home town

b) Bill Gates

c) Your academic subject

d) The last book you read

e) A film you saw recently

f) Your mother/father