Lecture 16: The completion of the subjugation of Great Horde

Lecture 17: Kazakhstan in the second half of the XIX c.                 

The objective of the lecture: Students should know economic and political development of Kazakhstan in the second half of the XIX c, and national uprisings as consequences of the Russian colonial policy.

Outline of the lecture:

1. Administrative reforms in Kazakhstan in 1867-1868.

2. Liberation movement of Kazakh sharua in 60-70-s of XIX c.

1. The Provisional Statute on the Administration of the Zhetisu and Syrdarya Oblast, July 11, 1867, and the Provisional Statute on the Administration of Turgai, Akmolinsk, Uralsk, and Semipalatinsk Oblasts, October 21, 1868 were declared.

All territory of Kazakhstan was divided into three General-governors. The 1867 and 1868 legislation divided the Kazakh Steppe into six oblasts, each headed by military governor. The Kazakh oblasts in Turkestan – Syrdarya and Semirechey – were under the jurisdiction of the governor-general of Turkestan. Until 1891 there was no general-governor of the steppe, Uralsk and Turgai were under Orenburg governor-general and Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk were administrated by the governor-general of Western Siberia.

The oblast military governors were the commanders of the troops stationed within each territory. Each oblast was divided into uezd headed by Russian officers who were assisted by local Kazakhs, usually drawn from the aristocracy. The uezd were divided into volosts and volosts into administrative auls, with these authorities elected from the Kazakh population. The volost and auls were formed on a territorial principle.

Each volost consisted of one or two thousand households, each administrative aul of one or two hundred families.

Each volost and uezd was having a native court and a Russian criminal court, in which the judges of the former would be elected and those of the latter appointed.

The cost of this administrative apparatus was to be met by Kazakhs themselves, for which the one ruble seventy-five kopek cart tax was raised to three rubles in four northern oblasts, and two rubles seventy-five kopeks in Turkestan.

The Kazakhs were also subjected to local (zemskii) taxation to maintain post roads, prisons, and schools, as well as to any traditional or religious taxes.

The new administration also regulated the religious authorities under the jurisdiction of the ministry of interior. The Kazakhs were limited to one mullah per volost. The volost officials were the only ones with the authority to permit the construction of the either mosques or religious schools. Once built, these structures were under the jurisdiction of the Orenburg muftiate, a subsidiary of the ministry of the interior. This was designed to reduce the growing influence of Islam in Kazakhstan.

The Steppe Commission had recommended that the Russians not intervene directly in the religious affairs of the Central Asians, but rather should restrict the spread of Islam. General Kaufman, the first governor-general of Turkestan, was strongly against Christian missionary activities in the steppe.

Although Muslim clergy in the sedentary regions lost power under the new law, the Muslims of Turkestan were able to continue their missionary activities among the Kazakhs of Semirechey and Syrdarya. The Orenburg muftiate also engaged in the active of Islam by funding the construction of legal and iilegal schools and mosques throughout the northern part of the steppe.

2. News of the Provisional Statutes aroused a strong burst of anti-Russian feelings among the Kazakhs. Uprisings broke out among the Middle Horde, the Small Horde, and Adayev Kazakhs of the Mangyshlak Peninsula.

Outline of the lecture:

1. Kazakhstan eve the war.
2. Kazakhstan in the plans of German fascism.
3. Mobilization in Kazakhstan. The Kazakhstanians at fronts.
4. Economy of Kazakhstan.

1. The criminal total deportation of the whole peoples, the considerable part of which was reflected to Kazakhstan.

- In October-November 1937 from Far East 110 th. the Koreans were resettled in Kazakhstan.

- In October-November 1938 from Turkmenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia 2,4 th. families of the Iranians, Azerbaijanians, Kurds and Armenians were deported.

- On the eve of the war the Poles and also all the representatives of the other peoples, who were objectionable for the regime, lived in the Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia were deported.

- Besides in Kazakhstan the citizens of the Baltic republics were moved.

- The huge stream of the evacuated population had been arriving in Kazakhstan from the Western regions of the country. 536 th. people evacuated in Kazakhstan, whose autonomous forming were liquidated.

- In August 1941 349713 Germans resettled, resettling of the rest part of the Germans in Kazakhstan went in 1944-1945.

- In Febriary 1944 in Central Asia and Kazakhstan were resettled by force the Chechens and Ingushes, in March -–the Balkars. In November – the Turks - Meskhetines and also the Crimean Tatars, Karachais, Kalmyks and other illegally repressed whole peoples.

In October 1946 in Kazakhstan 890698 “special migrants” lived

In the end of the 20-s the mass repression began in Kazakhstan. In the 1928 44 “bourgeois nationalist activists of “Alash-Horde” were arrested. Among them: A.Bukeykhanov, A.Baytursynov, M.Zhumabayev, Zh.Aimautov. In 1930 other group of intelligent (about 40 men) was arrested: M.Tynyshpayev, Kh.Dosmukhamedov. In 1937-1938 repression had mass character. T.Ryskulov, D.Sadvakasov, U.Issayev, U.Djandossov and other state and social activists were repressed and killed. Representatives of the Kazakh literature and science S.Seifullin, B.Mailin, I.Djansugurov, K.Zhubanov, S.Asfendiarov and others were killed.

7 concetration camps were formed in Kazakhstan. Biggest of them Karlag, ALJIR for wives of betrayers and others.

 

2. On June 22, 1941 the Great Patriotic War began. According “Barbarossa” plan Kazakhstan should been entered to “Gross Turkestan” and “the Moslems had to be slaves of the German race”.

Political plans of German fascism: to form an empire; Moslem’s states: Turkestan (the eastern part); “Idel-Ural” (the Western part). In perspective – to form a colony “Great Turkestan” (Kazakhstan, Middle Asia, Tataria, Bashkiria, Azerbaidjan, North Caucasus, Crimea, Sintsyan, North Afganistan, Iran).

The economic purpose: to form the region supplying Germany with raw materials and food.

Political purpose: to use this territory in the struggle against Moscow; to break the plan of Britain in the East.

 

3. In 1939 the population of Kazakhstan was 6,2 mln. People, 1mln 200 th of them were mobilized to the army: every fifth man was sent to the fronts and defense industry. At the first period of the war there were formed, trained and sent to the fronts 16 rifles and cavalry divisions, 7 brigades.

One of the first was organized the 316 rifles regiment consisted of the mobilized people from Alma-Ata, Djambul and South-Kazakhstan regions. (Panfilov regiment). 27 military schools trained officers. The glory of the Kazakhstanians was born near the Moscow, where 316 regiment took part. Heroism of 28 soldiers. B.Momyshuly – his batalyon defeated the enemies which 3 times surpassed the number of Kazakhstan soldiers. B.Momysuly was awarded by the title of the Hero of the SU in 1990. Heroes of the Soviet Union T.Tokhtarov, M.Gabdullin and others fought at Moscow.

 

310, 314 devisions from Kazakhstan took part in defense of Leningrad (S.Baimagambetov - Hero of the SU). In the autumn of 1942 Western-Kazakhstan region became front line. 120 divisions of Stalingrad front were dislocated here. (N.Abdirov, S.Spatayev, G.Ramayev and others fought at Stalingrad). Stations Saikhan, Shungai, Zhanibek were bombed by German aviation.

During the Patriotic War 499 Kazakhstanians, 99 Kazakhs among them were awarded by the title of the Hero of the SU. Pilots T.Begeldinov, L.Beda, I.Pavlov, S.Luganski awarded twice. Two Kazakh girls M.Mametova and A.Moldagulova became the Heroes of US. 410 th. Kazakstanians didn’t return from the war.

 

4. 670 th. people worked in industry. 1.5 mln. were evacuated to Kazakhstan. In 1941-1942 220 factories and plants from Ukraine, Beylorussia, Moldova, Moscow and Leningrad evacuated to Kazakhstan. During 1941-1945 460 enterprises were built in Kazakhstan.

2/3 of the mobilizing was workers of agriculture. 80% women worked in kolkhozes and demonstrated labor heroism. Sh.Bersiev from kolkhoz "Kurman"”of Aktjubinsk region made world record in cultivation of millet (202 centner from hect. I.Zhakayev from kolkhoz “Kzyl-Tu” Kzyl-Orda region gathered 172 centners of rice from hect. Kim Man Sam gathered 150 centners of rice from hect.

Cultural and scientific societies were evacuated to Kazakhstan. Moscow and Leningrad movie studious, more than 20 scientific offices. Academics V.Obruchev, A.Pankratova, U.Vernadski, A.Scochinski and others worked in Kazakhstan during the War. About heroes of front and rear wrote Zh.Zhabayev, M.Auezov, S.Mukanov, D.Snegin, D.Muldagaliev, S.Maulenov, S.Seitov, Zh.Sain. About 90 writers and poets of Kazakhstan fought on fronts.

 

Lecture 24: Development of economics in 50-60-s                         

The objective of the lecture: To show the aims of the September (1953) and March (1954) Plenums of the CC CPSU about the development of agriculture. The consequences of the development of virgin lands. Failure of the reforms of 1965.

 

Outline of the lecture:

1. Development of virgin and unused lands in Kazakhstan.

2. Development of economics in 60-70-s.

3. Reforms of 1965 in Kazakhstan.

 

Development of virgin and unused lands in 50-s. By September 1953, at the time of the Central Committee plenum, Khrushchev had clearly made some fairly concrete decisions about the course of begin. The Central Committee published a resolution that called for strengthening of agriculture through the development of parts of southeast, Kazakhstan, and western Siberia as major sources of winter wheat. The plenum also demanded the improvement of livestock breeding.

For stimulation of the development of agrarian sector the debts of kolkhozes were liquidated, the taxes were decreased. Prices for meat, milk, wool, potatoes, and vegetables were increased.

But First Secretary Shayakhmetov pointed out that any gains from the introduction of cereal cultivation in Northern Kazakhstan would come at the cost of livestock breeding.

Khrushchev found Shaiakhmetov’s attitude unacceptable. It was thus no surprise when the plenary session convened on February 11, 1954, in Alma-Ata, that the first and second secretaries of the Communist Party, Shayakhmetov and I.I.Afanov, were both dismissed from their posts. The next Central Committee plenary session, in February 1954, named P.K.Ponomorenko and L.I.Brezhnev to succeed them. The local Kazakh leadership also came under attack, and within the next three months the first secretaries of the six Virgin Land oblasts were all replaced.

On March 28, 1954, in the decree “On Increasing Grain Production in 1954-1955 through the Development of Virgin and Idle Lands”. This called for the cultivation of 13 million hectares of virgin and idle lands in Kazakhstan, the Ural, the Volga region, and some areas of North Caucasus.

In August, 1954 13.4 mln. hectares were sowed in the USSR and 6.5 in Kazakhstan. In 1956, 28-30 mln hectares of land planned for cultivation.

During the first year of the drive, 300 new state farms were organized in Kazakhstan to plant cereal crops on 3.5 million hectares of former grazing land. 

Thousands specialists were sent to Kazakhstan. In 1954 more than 20 th. people came to Akmolinsk oblast. Industrial enterprises sent 1386 specialists for development of virgin lands. During 1953-1958 266.6 th.specialists were sent to agriculture. They had the great privileges. The head of family received the benefit 500-1000 rubles and 150-200 rubles each member of family. 10 th. rubles credit was given for building the house for 10 years. 1500-2000 rubles for buying cattle, food loan, which consist of 150 kg of grain or meal and were released from taxes for 2-5 years. 20 billion rubles were invested for development of virgin lands.

The negative consequences of the development of virgin lands:

1. During two years 1954-1956 650 th. people came to Northern Kazakhstan, while needed 130 th.

2. Ecological balance was violated.

3. Soil subjected to destruction.

4. Pastures were reduced.

5. Thousand hectares were used for building settlements, ways and so on as a result stock-breeding was destroyed and shortage of meat and milk took place.

6. The migration of people from other republics promoted to lowering of the role of national customs and traditions, reducing of national schools, publishing of national literature and press. Language and demographic problems sharpened in Northern Kazakhstan.

Problems of economic development in the 60-s. Economic reforms of 1965. In the 60-s the central government realized that economy needed renewal and in 1965 reform was in all branches of economy and in management.

Management. Before 1965 a territorial principle of ruling over economy was used through special bodies sovnarkhozes. In 1965 ministries were formed to manage metallurgy, non-ferrous metals, transport, etc. New methods of planning. Plans were given by the central ministries, but the enterprises

worked on self-support basic and material stimulus for high productivity.

Science-technical revolution. Special plans for new technology stimulated the using of new invention. Production of titanium, magnesium, electromechanical, mechanical engineering was based on the achievement of scientific-technical revolution. Oil and chemical industry had allunion significance. In 1965 the first oil was produced in Uzen.

Results of the reforms. By 1970 Kazakhstan took the leading position in the USSR for production of lead, copper, titanium intensified economy ties with the other republics such levers as income, price, bonus and credit began to work. New light and food industries were built: Almaty and Shymkent cotton factories. Semipalatinsk, Zhezkazgan, Aktjubinsk stockinet factories. During 5-years 14 fabrics were built.

In 60-s new towns appeared in Kazakhstan: Rudnyi in Kustanai region, Shevchenko in Mangistau and others. There were similar and didn’t reflect geographical and historical features of region. Ecological cleanness, remake and liquidation of wastes, social problems didn’t solve.

Agricultural was also reformed: purchasing prices for agrarian were increase 2 times, 18 sovkhozes worked on self-supporting basic.

In the 60-s the struggle in the Soviet society was between two political trends: the reformers demanded democratic changes, the conservative wanted to preserve the old system. The population to improve their life, but the government ignored the social needs – it led to some social conflicts (Temirtau, 1959) which were suppressed.

 

 

Lecture 16: The completion of the subjugation of Great Horde                                                               

The objective of the lecture: To show peculiarities of the subjugation of Great Horde and consequences of it.

Outline of the lecture:

1. Kokand moving to the Great Horde.
2. Subjugation of Great Horde by Russian empire.

1. Russia was not only the state interested in gaining control of the Kazakh Steppe. Khan Omar of Kokand (reigned 1809-1922) led an expansionist policy toward the Kazakhs. After the conquest of Tashkent the armies of Kokand moved to Turkestan, than crossed over to the right bank of the Syrdarya.

Many of the sultans of the Great Horde supported Kokand because Khan Omar permitted them to collect their customary taxes from the Kazakhs in return for collecting the za’akat and ushur in Omar’s name. In 1821 a group of some 12000 Kazakhs from Turkestan, Chimkent, Sairam and Aulie-Ata regions led by Tentek Tore, revolted against the Khan of Kokand, but were defeated by Omar.

In the 1830-s and 1840-s there were periodic skirmishes between Kazakhs and troops of the Khan of Kokand, and in 1858, after an increase in taxation was announced, Kazakhs attacked Kokand’s fortresses at Tokmak and Aulie-Ata and spreaded from Shymkent to Pishpek – one of the great uprising of the middle of XIX c.

On December 20, 1863, Tsar Alexander II signed ukase ordering to attack Kokand during 1864. Preparations for the attack were completed in May and two separated armies were dispatched:

1. Colonel Verevkin left Perovsk with some 1500 men and marched toward Turkestan.

2. Colonel Chernaiev was sent from western Siberia to Turkestan with about 2500 men and 22 guns.

On June 4, 1864 the combined armies took possession of Aulie-Ata and on June 9 began a successful three-day siege against Turkestan. After fall of that city they attempted to take Chimkent but failed until September 21, after an additional Russia attachment had been sent.

In 1865 the oblast of Turkestan was formed under the administration of a military governor. Chernaiev was appointed to the post. On June 9, 1865 Chernaiev invaded to Tashkent, and after 3-days he conquered this town – the great political and economic center of Turkestan.

Brief military campaigns were subsequently launched against Khiva and Bukhara in 1873 and both this khanates became Russian protectorates. The power of the khan of Kokand was broken and the city of Kokand surrendered to Russians in 1876.

So, after defeat of Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva, Kazakhs of the Great Horde were subjugated by Russian empire.

2. In the 1730-s, when the Khans of the Small and Middle Hordes joined to Russia, one part of the Great Hordes joined to Russia too. The majority of the Great Horde remained under the control of the Joungar state. After defeating Joungaria in 1756 one group migrated to Joungaria, another remained in Tashkent. A third group camped in the eastern Zhetisu region, and quickly established their independence from China.

By the first part of the XIX c. this third group ruled by Sultan Suiuk (son of Ablay), found itself forced to choose between two powerful, expansionist states, Russia and Kokand. Suiuk decided that rule by Kokand was the greater evil and so in 1819 swore his loyalty to Russia. This fought an additional 66000 Kazakhs (of Zhalair tribe) under Russian rule.

In 1820 the Governor-general of western Siberia sent a military detachment of 120 Cossacks to the territory of the Great Horde to secure the trade routes and to gain Russian control over the area without force. In 1824 an additional 50000 Kazakhs accepted Russian administration. The population was ruled in accordance with 1822 reforms but was released from yassak (animal tribute).

In 1847 the Russians consolidated their hold over the Kopalsk region when all of the Kazaks migrating between Lepsi and Ili rivers, an additional 40000 families, accepted Russian administration. This resulted in the formation of Council on January 10, 1848, to administrate the Great Horde.

In the 1820-s and 1830-s the Russian authorities at Orenburg and Omsk sent several military missions to expose the steppe. One the results of these missions were the ill-fated campaign against Khiva in 1839, led by Governor-General V.A.Perovskii of Orenburg. Perovskii expedition lost 1,000 men and most of its trasport. In 1847 Perovskii began an ambitious project to build two fortified lines: 1. Novoaleksandrovsk – from north-east corner of the Aral Sea for 300 miles along the Syr-Darya. From Semey to south.

The construction of these two lines began with the building of a fort at Raim (Aralsk) and Kopalsk (in the region north of the Ili River) and ended six years later with the construction of Kazalinsk in 1853 and founding of Verny (south of the Ili river) in 1854.

After this the Russians began their campaign against Kokand, taking the fort at Ak-Mechet, which they renamed Perovsk (later Kzyl-Orda).