Some Major Accidents at Spent Nuclear Fuel Treatment Facilities

  1957. USSR. The worst disaster is considered to be the one at the Mayak plant which was kept under strict secrecy at the time. Up to this day people are dying as a result of the accident which contaminated the local water reservoirs and air.

  1977. Cape La Hague, France. Block depressurization. France assured that there had been no radioactive emission. But Greenpeace discovered high levels of radiation in territorial waters.

  1978. Idaho, United States. Spontaneous chain reaction. No radiation emission. No victims.

  1979 and 1983. Sellafield Plant, England. The first incident involved a radiation leak, and the second, radioactive contamination of the soil, and a radioactive leakage into the sea.

  1986. Ukraine, USSR. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster began early on Saturday 26 April within the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011).

 

3. Reading. Read the text and answer the questions in Comprehension check below. Translate the text.                                         

 

                                              Nuclear Energy

1. The protons and the neutrons in atomic nuclei are bound together with forces that are much greater than the forces that bind atoms together to form molecules. In fact, the energies associated with nuclear processes are more than a million times those associated with chemical reactions. This potentially makes the nucleus a very attractive source of energy. There are two types of nuclear process producing energy:

a) Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. These processes are called fusion.

b) Splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with smaller mass numbers. This process is called fission.

Both processes can supply amazing quantities of energy with relatively small masses of materials consumed.

2. Nuclear fission was discovered in the late 1930 when U-nuclides bombarded with neutrons were observed to split in two lighter elements. In order for the fission process to be self-sustained, at least one neutron from each fission event¹ must go on to split another nucleus. Neutrons released from the break-up of one nucleus bombard other nuclei, causing a chain reaction which leads to sudden, explosive release of energy. This is the basis of both nuclear weapons and nuclear power in which energy of nuclear fission is converted to electricity.

During World War II the United States carried out an intense research effort called the Manhattan Project to build a bomb on the principles of nuclear fission. This programme produced the fission bomb which was used with devastating effect on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

3. The process of combining two light nuclei called nuclear fusion produces even more energy than nuclear fission does. In fact, stars produce their energy through nuclear fusion. Our sun which consists of 73% hydrogen, 26% helium and 1% other elements gives off vast quantities of energy from the fusion. In nuclear fusion two nuclei join together: the protons and the neutrons combine to form a larger nucleus, some protons, neutrons and other particles escape, and energy is released. Intense efforts are under way to develop a feasible fusion process, however, initiating the fusion processes is much more difficult than initiating fission. Currently, scientists are studying two types of systems to produce the extremely high temperature required. But still many technical problems remain to be solved, and it is not clear whether either method will prove useful.

4. Because of the tremendous energy involved, fission has been developed as an energy source to produce electricity in reactors where controlled fission can occur. The resulting energy is used to heat water to produce steam that runs turbine generators, in much the same way that a coal-burning power plant generates energy by heating water to produce steam. Although the concentration of 235U in the fuel elements is not great enough to allow an explosion such as the one that occurs in a fission bomb, a failure of the cooling system can lead temperatures high enough to melt the reactor core. This means that the building housing the core must be designed to contain the core even in the event of such a melt-down. A great deal of controversy appeared about the efficiency of the safety in power plant systems. Accidents such as the one in the Three Mile Island facility in Pennsylvania in 1979 and the one at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in 1986 have made people to doubt in the wisdom of building fission-based power plants.

¹fission event - акт деления

Comprehension check

A) 1. Which forces can be observed in nuclear processes?

2. Which reaction produces more energy if you compare nuclear and chemical ones?

3. What makes the nucleus a very attractive source of energy?

4. What types of nuclear process produce energy?

5. What is needed for a chain reaction to take place?

6. What principle does a nuclear reactor depend on when it is in operation?

7. What problems do scientists have to solve for safe operation of the reactor?

8. What is the difference between fusion and fission?

 

 B) Choose the statement that best expresses the main idea of the paragraph:

Paragraph 1.

1. Nuclear power may be produced in the course of a chain reaction.

2. There are two types of nuclear processes that produce energy: fission and fusion.

3. The energies released by nuclear processes are more than a million times greater than those associated with chemical reactions; there are two types of nuclear processes (fission and fusion) that produce energy.

Paragraph 2.

1. Nuclear fission was discovered in the late 1930.

2. A chain reaction, which leads to a release of energy, is the basis of both nuclear weapons and nuclear power.

3. Nuclear fission is the process in which nuclides of certain heavy metals can be split into lighter elements with a release of great amount of energy. Nuclear weapons and nuclear power work on principles of nuclear fission.

Paragraph 3.

1. Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two light nuclei with a release of huge quantities of energy even more than in the process of nuclear fission.

2. Stars produce their energy through nuclear fission.

3. A thermonuclear bomb works on the principle of nuclear fusion.

Paragraph 4.

1. Fission-based power plants are used to heat water to produce steam that runs turbine generators, in much the same way that a coal-burning power generates energy.

2. A great deal of controversy now exists about the safety of the systems in power plants.

3. There are different types of fission-based power plants provided with the safety systems but accidents occur and much controversy surrounds the use of nuclear energy to generate electricity.

           

4. Vocabulary. Match the verbs in column A with the nouns in column B to make phrases.

 

A	B
To cause	harmful radiation
To carry out	heavy nucleus
To run	neutrons
To consume	electric generator
To run	electricity
To combine	research
To produce	two nuclei
To split	materials
To absorb	chain reaction

  

5. Vocabulary. Complete the sentences with the following words: chain, generations, fusion, break-up, threat, harmful.

1. There two types of nuclear reactions: fission and ….

2. Natural radioactive decay does not normally release much energy because the nuclei … very slowly, sometimes over hundreds of years.

3. A nuclear … reaction can result if neutrons from each fission cause more nuclei to split.

4. Nuclear power stations are a potential source of … radiation.

5. Genetic damage is damage to the genetic mechanism of the organism which will be manifested in future ….

6. The use of the nuclear fuels could lead to the pollution of the environment or a dangerous terrorist ….

6. Vocabulary. Match two words that are synonyms: to separate, to start, to combine, to change into, to bring about, to split, to find out, to observe, to result in, to discover, to cause, to convert, to lead, to initiate, to join, to watch.

 

7. Vocabulary. Give antonyms for the following words. All the opposites can be found in the text above.

to combine, to supply, to release, to connect, to receive, to destroy, to increase, to heat, to contaminate, light.         

 

8. Vocabulary. Put the words given bellow into the gaps. Pay attention to the modal verbs used.

                                        Nuclear Problems

  There are two approaches to the nuclear waste. One is … the waste either on the surface or underground. If the … is kept for long enough, the radioactivity drops to safe levels. In some cases, it has to be stored for thousands of years. The problems of handling and … of highly … waste can be reduced if it is sealed in concrete or glass blocks before …. After long period materials such as glass or concrete may … because of weathering and corrosion. This problem has to be controlled and … if it arises.

Another … to the problem is … the waste to the environment so that it gets diluted in the sea or in the air. This must be done only in the case of …. waste that will not significantly affect the environment.

The problem of the … waste still remains to be solved and requires further ….. The use of nuclear … could lead to pollution of the …or a dangerous terrorist ….        

Words to insert: radioactive, solved, to store, low-activity, environment, threat, deteriorate, to release, approach, nuclear, investigation, storing, waste, storage, fuel.

9. Word formation. What parts of speech are the following words?

to store – storage – storing – stored; to approach – approaching – approached – approach; to reduce – reduce – reducing – reduction – reduced; to depend – depending – dependent – dependence – depended; to recycle – recycled – recycling.

 

10. Vocabulary.   Insert the following words into the gaps: hydrogen, waste, to produce, cheap, to develop, amounts, united, fusion, energy.

                                              

                                                  Nuclear Fusion

   Fusionmay solve all our …. problems. Atoms of hydrogen are …. and can produce large …. of energy. In contrastto the splittingof atoms, …. is safer and does not produce a lot of nuclear ….

We have an almost endless amount of …. in our oceans but, up to now, scientistshave not yet decided on a way …. large amountsof such energy. Such a system, which produces …. energy from our oceans, will probably take years or decades to …..

 

11. Skills development. Translate the text into English using words and wordcombinations from the texts above.

                                          Ядерная энергия

Энергию можно получить от расщепления атомных ядер (ядерное расщепление) или объединения ядер атомов (ядерное слияние). В каждой из этих реакций выделяется большое количество энергии. Атомные станции используют устройство, называющееся ядерным реактором, в котором атомы урана или плутония расщепляются в контролируемой реакции расщепления. Выделяемая тепловая энергия накапливается и используется для того, чтобы выработать электричество. Что касается 2000 года, то в США было 110 действующих атомных станций, а во Франции 70% производства электричества основано на атомной энергии. Как считают многие ученые, контролируемая ядерная реакция – это окончательная решение проблем мировой энергии. Энергия, выделяющаяся в реакции слияния, во много раз больше, чем энергия, выделяющаяся в реакции расщепления. Сегодня, однако, эта технология еще не разработана для того, чтобы можно было воспользоваться этим источником энергии.

 

12. Skills development. Discuss the questions.

1. What is your personal opinion on the use of nuclear power?

2. Why has Chernobyl accident led some countries to refuse from building and using nuclear power?

3. Do you think the world could do without nuclear power? Are there any alternative energy sources?

4. Can we hope that new sources of energy will be discovered in future as a result of intensive research?

5. Why do many countries still continue to use nuclear power?

Exercise 13. Make a report on nuclear energy. Give your arguments in favour and against it. What is your opinion on the future of nuclear energy?

GRAMMAR: CONDITIONALS

 

A) Zero Conditionals. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. If a piston (поршень) moves up, the pressure in the cylinder increases.

2. If your area receives a great deal of direct sun light, a solar system will provide electricity and heating for your home.

3. If the sun is not shining, the solar power is not producing energy.

4. If everything is done correctly, geothermal energy produces no harmful by-products.

5. If wind speed decreases, the turbine lingers and less electricity is generated.

6. Fortunately, it is easier to improve the energy performance of new buildings and improvements can often be made for a much lower cost if they are taken into account early enough in the design process.

7. If alternative energy is children’s reality right from the start, it will not be a challenge for them to adjust to these options later in life.

 

B) Conditionals I. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Unless we have safe containers, we will not be able to dispose of toxic waste.

2. If the temperature rises above 1000^oC, the boiler will explode.

3. If reductions of CO₂ emissions are to be achieved, we’ll have to reduce the energy used in buildings significantly. 

5. If you teach your children the value of using energy conservation practices, it will benefit them their entire lives.

6. If your power company allows it, you will be able to connect the system to the grid and sell the excess energy to the company.

C) Conditionals II. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. If natural resources were valued in the same way that manufactured assets are valued, it might help economists learn to use them more effectively and to conserve them in order to assure continued use in future.

2. If it weren’t for the protective nature of the atmosphere, the sun would “fry” us with its high-energy radiation.

3. If every nuclear plant were closed down tomorrow, the world would still be living with the legacy of nuclear power for the next 500 years.

4. If wind power as another alternative energy source could be used on a massive scale, there would not be production of by-products that are harmful for nature.

5. But for large-scale support for research in Universities, the flow of technical advances needed to maintain our living standards would be severely damaged.

 

D) Compare Conditionals I and II.

1.a) If we don’t employ fossil fuels in the production of electricity, these materials will be used to manufacture other valuable things. 

b) If we didn’t employ fossil fuels in the production of electricity, these materials would be used to manufacture other valuable things.

2.a) If more people use public transport, it will be possible to park your car in the city center.

 b) If more people used public transport, it would be possible to park your car in the city center.

3.a) If we develop other alternative sources, fossil fuels won’t run out so rapidly.

b) If we developed other alternative sources, fossil fuels wouldn’t run out so rapidly.

 

15. GRAMMAR: CONDITIONALS. Complete the Conditionals II with the proper verb forms.

1. If environmental problems (not affect) people daily, they (not be) concerned about protecting the natural world.

3. If changes in climate and weather (happen) faster, natural vegetation (can not) adapt to them.

4. If emissions of greenhouse gases (be) cut to 60-80 per cent, the Earth climate (stabilize).

5. We (can) develop other alternative sources if we (spend) more money on research.

 

16. GRAMMAR: CONDITIONALS. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Если бы каждый в развивающихся странах использовал такое же количество энергии, что и средний потребитель в странах с высоким доходом, потребление энергии в развивающихся странах увеличилось бы в 8 раз.

2. Даже если бы проблема ядерных отходов была решена, общественное беспокойство о безопасности ядерной энергии не исчезло бы.

3. Если бы ядерные станции не были так важны для обеспечения электричеством, то было бы много аргументов в пользу их закрытия.

4. Если бы не энергетическая проблема, не пришлось бы строить атомные станции.

Unit 7

Natural Gas

Words to remember

replacement                                               

to be precise                                              

to liquefy                                      

liquefied gas                                 

to surpass                                    

recent(ly)                                      

crude oil                                       

underground reservoir                  

methane                                        

hydrocarbon compounds             

oil field                                         

wellhead (месторождение)                        

oil field (месторождение нефти)             

to run on oil

reserves (запасы)                          

impurities

waste – to waste

to draw attention (to)

well

at great expense

to put simply

pipeline system

to inject

due to technological advance

to disperse

to attract investment

to contain

to consist

to process

reservoir (a trap underground where

gas concentrates)

 

1. Vocabulary. Match the words close in meaning from a) and b):

a) precise, to take off, chiefly, to surpass, to extract, to run on smth, to improve, to manufacture, to blame, to recognize;

b) to get better, to accuse, to pull out, to produce, to rise, accurate, to acknowledge, to work on smth, to exceed, mainly.

2. Vocabulary. Explain how the following words are formed. What part of speech are they? What part of speech are they made of? Translate them.

Replacement, increasingly, liquefy, chiefly, greenness, unprotected, pipeline, shipped, transportation, acknowledge. 

3. Reading. Read the text and answer the questions below. Translate the text.

                                

Natural Gas

Energy firms and their investors are becoming increasingly excited about its replacement: not wind, waves or solar power but gas – or to be precise, gas that is frozen and transported as liquefied natural gas.

This is expected to become as crucial to the global economy as petroleum is today. Specialists at Royal Dutch–Shell think gas may surpass oil as the world’s most important energy source by 2025. Demands for gas have taken off in recent years chiefly due to its greenness – it burns far cleaner than oil or coal, making it ideal for new power plants from California to China. Besides, burning gas is much less carbon-intensive than coal – making it harder to blame it for global warming.

Natural gas is a fuel consisting mostly of methane gas, extracted from under the ocean or ground. It contains other hydrocarbon compounds (ethane, propane, and butane) and can often be used directly without any processing. Methane is the principal component of natural gas.

A century ago, natural gas was considered a waste product in oil fields and flared or vented off. But after a giant gas field was found in the Panhandle in 1918, it was used to manufacture carbon black, which is used to make car tires. Eventually, Americans began using gas to heat their homes and, later, at power plants. But it never became as important a fuel as coal, oil or even nuclear power. A combination of circumstances has drawn new attention to natural gas.

Gas traditionally needed systems of pipelines to get it from wellhead to the customer. This meant it was typically used fairly close to where it was produced, shipped at great expense via pipeline or, more often, simply wasted. The situation needed to be changed. Put simply, gas can be frozen into liquid from near its source, shipped to market in refrigerated tankers, warmed back into gaseous state on foreign shores and injected into the local pipeline system. If the gas weren’t liquefied, it would be impossible to transport it.

Due to this technological advance, gas has the potential to be global commodity like oil. The world economy runs on oil and natural gas. These fuels improve your quality of life by providing with transportation, warmth, light, and many everyday products. But for natural gas we wouldn’t have clean and safe fuel for modern vehicles. Without oil and natural gas, quality of life would decline and people in developing nations would not be able to improve their standard of living. Does that mean that alternative energy sources are not necessary? Of course not. But it is important to acknowledge the value of oil and gas to the world economy and recognize that it will take decades before the alternatives can replace all of things that oil and natural gas contribute to our lives.

 

Answer the questions on the text:

1. What is natural gas? What does it contain? What is the principal component?

2. How was natural gas regarded a century ago?

3. What happened in 1918? Why did people change their opinion on natural gas?

4. How was natural gas used by Americans?

5. Why could natural gas be used only near the place of production?

6. What must be done before the natural gas can be transported?

7. Why are oil and gas an important part of our everyday life?

8. What can you say about the use of oil and natural gas in developing countries?

9. Why is natural gas use growing across all economic sectors?

10. What do oil and gas provide us with?

11. What alternative fuels do you know? Are they expected to become competitive with oil for transportation? Why?