Сидорова Д.Г., Филиппова Г.Ф.

Сидорова Д.Г., Филиппова Г.Ф.

С34 Английский язык для магистрантов (технических специальностей): Учебно-методическое пособие / Д.Г. Сидорова, Г.Ф. Филиппова. – Казань: Казан. гос. энерг. ун-т, 2009. – 80 с.

Учебно-методическое пособие представляет собой грамматический справочник, а также сборник текстов и упражнений по различным аспектам английской грамматики.

Данное пособие предназначено для магистрантов технических специальностей и имеет целью приобретение и развитие навыков научно- технического перевода.

 

 

УДК 811.111

ББК 81.2

 

© Казанский государственный энергетический университет, 2009.

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Настоящее пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы магистрантов технических специальностей.

Основная цель данного пособия – систематизировать имеющиеся знания, развивать навыки и умения правильно употреблять грамматические структуры английского языка в письменной и устной речи, подготовить магистрантов к работе с научно-технической литературой по специальности.

Пособие состоит из теоретической и практической частей.

Теоретическая часть включает в себя справочник по грамматике, состоящий из 10 разделов. Отбор материала производился с учетом наиболее часто встречающихся, а также вызывающих определенные трудности грамматических явлений.

Практическая часть представлена сборником тренировочных упражнений и текстов, построенных на общеупотребительной и научно-технической лексике. Цель данных упражнений – автоматизация употребления различных грамматических структур, развитие навыков чтения и перевода научно-технических текстов.

Пособие предназначено для магистрантов технических специальностей.

 

I. СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ

Страдательным залогом (пассивной формой) мы называем такую конструкцию предложения, при которой подлежащее не является действующим лицом (или предметом), а само подвергается действию со стороны дополнения (при этом дополнение может лишь подразумеваться, не будучи выражено в предложении):

 

Radium was discovered in 1898 (by the Curies). – Радий был открыт в 1898 г. (супругами Кюри).

 

Сказуемое в пассивной форме состоит из вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени и причастия прошедшего времени смыслового глагола:

to be + Participle II

Инфинитив – to be constructed:

	Present	Past	Future	Future in the Past
Indefinite	The bridge is constructed.	The bridge was constructed.	The bridge will be constructed.	The bridge would be constructed.
Continuous	The bridge is being constructed.	The bridge was being constructed.	—	—
Perfect	The bridge has been constructed.	The bridge had been constructed.	The bridge will have been constructed.	The bridge would have been constructed.

 

The bridge was constructed last year. – Этот мост был построен в прошлом году.

 

После глаголов в страдательном залоге часто следует предложное дополнение с предлогом by:

This music was composed by Beethoven. – Эта музыка была написана Бетховеном.

 

Значение временных форм глагола в страдательном залоге

и способы их перевода:

Временное значение глагольных форм в страдательном залоге соответствует временному значению глаголов в таких же временных формах действительного залога:

Простое настоящее:

Every year we build new roads in this region. Каждый год мы строим новые дороги в этом районе. (действительный залог)

New roads are built in this region every year. Каждый год в этом районе строятся новые дороги. (страдательный залог)

 

Настоящее перфектное:

Someone has spilt some wine on the table-cloth. Кто-то пролил вино на скатерть. (действительный залог)

Some wine has been spilt on the table-cloth. Вино было пролито на скатерть. (страдательный залог)

 

Простое прошедшее:

They staged “Othello” last year. В прошлом году они поставили «Отелло». (действительный залог)

“Othello” was staged last year. «Отелло» был поставлен в прошлом году. (страдательный залог)

 

Прошедшее продолженное:

They were building a new school in our town. Они строили новую школу в нашем городе. (действительный залог)

A new school was being built in our town. Новая школа строилась в нашем городе. (страдательный залог)

 

Простое будущее:

We shall pack the suitcases in ten minutes. Мы уложим чемоданы через десять минут. (действительный залог)

The suitcases will be packed in ten minutes. Чемоданы будут уложены через десять минут. (страдательный залог)

 

Английские глаголы в страдательном залоге переводят на русский язык одним из следующих способов:

1) страдательным оборотом, в котором сказуемое (аналогично сказуемому страдательного залога в английском языке) образовано сочетанием глагола быть (был, будет) с краткой формой страдательного причастия:

He was invited to the meeting. – Он был приглашен на собрание.

2) глаголами, оканчивающимися на -ся:

Apples are being sold in this shop. – Яблоки продаются в этом магазине.

3) неопределенно-личным предложением (подлежащее в переводе отсутствует; сказуемое стоит в 3-м лице множественного числа действительного залога):

The book is much spoken about. – Об этой книге много говорят.

4) когда нельзя применить какой-либо из указанных выше способов, страдательный оборот при переводе заменяют равнозначным ему оборотом в действительном залоге (дополнение с by при переводе становится подлежащим):

They were invited by my friend. – Их пригласил мой друг.

 

 

Упражнение 1. Проанализируйте следующие предложения, обращая внимание на глаголы в страдательном залоге:

1. The Leningrad metro was being constructed when the Great Patriotic war broke up. 2. In Soviet times Tsiolkovsky's ideas were recognised and he was given state support. 3. We were told about the sad state of art in eastern regions. 4. The lightness of hydrogen is made use of in the filling of balloons. 5. Safety and protection for the people working around the atomic reactor are provided by a mass of reinforced concrete, 8 feet thick. 6. Radio sets are provided for in all sea going vessels. 7. The discovery of radium was followed by a number of important inventions. 8. The current is measured with the ammeter. 9. The expedition was given a very difficult task. 10. The balloon has been lost sight of. 11. This problem may be approached from different standpoints. 12. Spanish is spoken in South America. 13. His words were followed by a deep silence.

Упражнение 2. Проанализируйте следующие предложения, обращая внимание на глаголы в страдательном залоге:

1. The question of further development of agriculture was given much attention. 2. The trajectory of a projectile is affected to a large extent by air resistance. 3. We are taught that light is a form of energy. 4. A floating body is acted upon by two sets of forces. 5. This project must be given due consideration. 6. 65.4 parts of zinc and 2 parts of hydrogen are spoken of as chemically equivalent quantities. 7. No electric charges have ever been observed of smaller magnitude than the charges of proton or electron. 8. Nuclear reactor is provided with a concrete shielding. 9. The Conference was attended by 150 delegates. 10. The speaker was listened to attentively. 11. We were given an exceptionally warm welcome by Zulu students. 12. Have you been brought a newspaper? 13. Potatoes were brought to Europe by Columbus.

Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения, выделяя сказуемые в страдательном залоге:

1. Mathematics is loved by many, disliked by a few, admir­ed and respected by all. 2. Facts alone are wanted in life (Ch. Dickens). 3. These parts are made of steel throughout. 4. At this point the material under examination is fed. 5. The treatment of this theory was modified. 6. The possibilities under consideration will be discussed in detail. 7. The invasion of armies is resisted; the invasion of ideas is not (V. Hugo). 8. The initiative was supported by everybody. 9. Thus, the upper cut number of the node B is decreased by one. 10. As far as this theory is concerned there are different views. 11. The machine was tried under severe conditions. 12. With a catalyst the reaction was accelerated tenfold. 13. This stage was preceded by careful study of the results. 14. If you already know what these terms mean, proceed directly to Chapter 1, in which the procedure is presented. 15. No stage of the design can be completed in the absence of a complete specification of the system under design. 16. This requirement must be met. 17. Little was known about subsequent negotiations except that no agreement was reached. 18. In an inductive argument data about past and future are taken as "reasons". 19. Under these conditions the requirements involved are only partially met. 20. Significant variance reductions can be effected by these procedures. 21. Considerably less was written about mechanisms for effecting state changes. 22. The incompati­bility of "this is good" and "this is not good" is preserved. 23. The intellect is involved into action. 24. Such acts are forbidden by law. 25. The number of degrees of freedom is reduced by the number of imposed constraints. 26. The task is executed through successive completion of such cycles. 27.The importance of this phenomenon was underestimated. 28.What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure (S. Johnson). 29. The special case derivations will not be provided, but the numerical results will be provided.

 

Упражнение 4. Переведите текст, выделяя сказуемые в страдательном залоге:

Research that is directed toward the solution of problems can be divided into two major classes: evaluative and devel­opmental. An evaluative problem is one in which the alterna­tive courses of action are completely specified in advance and the solution consists of selecting the best of these. A devel­opmental problem is concerned with the search for (and per­haps construction or synthesis of) instruments which yield a course of action that is better than any available at the time.

In discussing the phases of research we shall consider each of the types of research that have been identified and explore their methodological differences and similarities. But the basis of these comparisons will be laid throughout by a de­tailed consideration of evaluative problem solving.

As it will be seen in some detail, applied research has the advantage of being able to formulate criteria of its own effi­ciency in terms of the objectives for which the problem is being investigated. Because of lack of specific objectives, in pure research such criteria cannot be formulated as explicit­ly. Consequently, in pure research many implicit assumptions are made about the conditions under which its results will be applied. In applied research these assumptions are frequent­ly found to be unrealistic. To elaborate a previous example, in pure research the seriousness of various errors can seldom be measured. In applied problems, however, there are few cases in which this condition holds. Hence different estima­tion procedures are required in applied science, and serious questions about the estimating procedures of pure science are raised. This fact is not generally appreciated; to the contrary, it is commonly believed that pure research tends to be meth­odologically superior to applied research. Hence, the general approach of this book may be contrary to the intuition and beliefs of many.

We shall first discuss the methodological aspects of each phase of research in an applied context, and then consider what can be learned from this representation that can be used in the pure research context.

 

 

Упражнение 5. Переведите предложения, выделяя сказуемые в страдательном залоге:

1. The point of equilibrium however is tremendously influenc­ed by the temperature. 2. The results were affected by the presence of impurities. 3. This phenomenon has been dealt with by several researchers. 4. In ethers and similar solvents the frequency was unaffected. 5. No difficulties were met at all. 6.The reaction was followed by measuring temperature. 7. The experiment will be followed by testing the end product. 8. This usage is not followed in carbohydrate chemistry. 9. Hamilton's discovery was quickly followed by other new algebras. 10. No amount of selected examples, however convincing, can be relied upon.

11. What is watched or waited for seems too long in coming. 12. As far as other compounds of this series are concern­ed they will be dealt with in another chapter. 13. While such special cases are rather easily dealt with the general problem is considerably more difficult. 14. The changes in water content will be accompanied by alterations in salt concentrations, and the latter are also affected by the ionic concentrations of the food ingested. 15. This problem can be approached from several points of view. 16. The congress was referred to as a most represen­tative forum in this field. 17. Fallacies of this kind can often be met with. 18. Every thing is affected by its relations to every­thing else. 19. A decision was arrived at.

20. This is hardly to be wondered at. 21. This central idea must not be lost sight of. 22. Methods employed in solving a problem are strongly in­fluenced by the research objective. 23. As data are changed, how are outputs affected? 24. This paper was shortly followed by another by the same author. 25. Any statement which must be referred to by any other statement in the program must be identified by a "statement number". 26. The inward component is not affected by any of these treatments. 27. These rules were arrived at independently. 28. A printer gets assigned temporally to a user as his own whilst he uses it.29. Mercury becomes contaminated and cannot be reused. 30. The output gets substracted from the input signal. 31. Different forms of experience were studied and became organized into a science.

 

 

Упражнение 6. Прочитайте текст, переведите его, обращая внимание на глаголы в страдательном залоге:

Automation is often referred to as a new subject and its vari­ous aspects have not yet all been paid adequate attention to. Thus, for example, its commercial aspects have been only recently fully appreciated. Many problems arising from the impact of auto­mation on national and world economy have not even been dealt with. It is, therefore, of paramount importance that general pub­lic should be informed both of its technological and social aspects.

There is hardly any aspect of human life that would not be affected by the changes that automation will bring about. Un­fortunately, there is relatively little factual material available for analysing the consequences of automatization. Indeed, most economists are not yet fully aware of the problems that might arise in the process of automatization. The effect of these de­velopments on the trend of prices, capital investments, balance of payments have not yet been fully appreciated. These sub­jects should be adequately dealt with in foreseeable future.

 

 

Упражнение 7. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на сказуемые в страдательном залоге:

1. Never ask pardon before you are accused. 2. Little thieves are hanged, but great ones escape. 3. What may be done at any time will be done at no time. 4. Nature is often hidden; sometimes overcome; seldom extinguished (F. Bacon). 5. Goodness of an object is defined by its relation to other objects. 6. This is rooted in instinct. 7. A mechanical method was substituted for an electric one. 8. Intuitive skill is required in forecasting opinions. 9. This phenomenon is accounted for by the sudden rise of temperature. 10. For the estimations use will be made of a hypothetical reference model. 11. Assume that all demands must be met on time. 12. The distinction between cause and effect cannot be established or altered by any authority, external or internal. 13. The decision is reached by balancing pleasures against pain. 14. Each sensor was assigned a corresponding specified coordinate S. 15. From now on it is assumed that the machines under consideration are strongly connected.

 

Упражнение 8. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на трудные случаи перевода глаголов в страдательном залоге:

1. The question of the laws of resistances in circuits may now be turned to. 2. Many materials now commonly used were not even thought of thirty years ago. 3. Biological methods of purifying water are given much attention to by scientists. 4. The range of application of gas chromatography is wide and most substances boiling under 300ºC can be dealt with readily. 5. Poli­tical and economic penetration was soon followed by outright annexation. 6. Their defeat was utter and awful. Mercy was not thought of. 7. The book was terribly bad, it was just a chance that it got published. 8. Mathematics, astronomy and physics were the first sciences to get organized and defined. 9. Every breach of rules was dealt with as a breach of the law and punish­ment was proportionally severe. 10. When exposed to a beam of light this movement becomes oriented in the direction of the beam, and on a vertical surface it becomes directed by gravity. 11.The speed with which arithmetic operations are performed is affected by a number of factors. 12. Ingaseous reactions the equilibrium position is largely influenced by pressure. 13. The qualitative examination of an organic compound is followed by a quantitative analysis. 14. Questions can be asked and answer­ed, but unfortunately the questions asked and those answered are frequently not the same.

 

Упражнение 9. Переведите текст, выделите случаи употребления страдательного залога и дайте возможные варианты перевода:

 

COAL

It has been proved that all coals had their origin in the vegetable matter of prehistoric forests. The woody fiber and other vegetable matter were transformed into peat by fermentation due to bacteria. During this process, a great part of the oxygen and hydrogen was eliminated, while the amount of carbon remained practically the same. Subsequently the peaty matter was changed into coal by a process of destructive distillation, which had been caused by great pressure and high temperature. The differences in types of coal can be easily explained by different conditions during this process of evolution. Among these variable conditions by which the formation of coal had been affected the following may be mentioned: time, depth of the bed below the surface of the earth, and amount of disturbance of the bed due to movements of the earth.

Foreign matter was introduced during this movement of the earth. Coal is composed of the following principal elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. However, these are not present solely in their elementary state, but also in various combinations, principally moisture and volatile matter. Consequently, coal is classified into various types according to its constituents; some of these types will be mentioned below.

Peat is an intermediate condition between wood and coal. It is often used as fuel in the Temperate Zone, where it is found in large quantities in the swampy regions. It is commonly cut into blocks and dried in the air.

Bituminous coal is the name which is usually given to coal containing more than 20 per cent volatile matter. Bituminous coal is not susceptible to spontaneous combustion, although care must be exercised in its storage. Since there is a wide range of variation in the characteristics of the bituminous coals, they have been divided commercially into the following classes: coking, cannel, and non-coking. Coking coal, upon being burned gives off considerable gas and tends to fuse together in a pasty mass (coke). Cannel coal has a high percentage of volatile hydrocarbons, ignites easily and is so valuable as a gas-producing coal that it is rarely burned to produce steam.

Non-coking coal does not coke upon being burned and is very extensively used as a fuel to produce steam.

THE RUSTING OF METALS

It has long been known that metals can pass from a metallic to an earthy form. One must be careful not to expose unprotected iron to the open air, as under the influence of atmospheric conditions the outer layer of the iron quickly changes into a reddish crust called the rust. One can easily find that this new material is a different substance from iron. The rust is very brittle, it is much lighter, bulk for bulk, than iron and it is not attracted by a magnet.

It was early observed that, although the specific gravity of the earthy product was less than that of the metal, yet there was a much greater bulk of it, and that, in fact, the earthy material weighed more than the original specimen of the metal.

It was Lomonosov who first proved that the extra material came from the air. He placed some tin in a flask and sealed up the mouth of the vessel. The tin was heated and converted into the white powder. Upon weighing the apparatus it was found that no change in weight occurred. It turned out, however, that when the mouth of the flask was opened, a good deal of air rushed in and the total weight was then greater. A portion of the original air had joined itself with the tin to form the powder.

Eighteen years later the same experiment was made and the same conclusion drawn from it by Lavoisier. He named the gas taken from the air, oxygen.

It is possible to confirm these conclusions in various ways. For example, when the air is pumped out of the flask before it is sealed, the metal can be heated in the vacuum indefinitely without rusting. Thus it can be seen that fundamentally rusting is the process in which metals oxidize and form compounds.

It has been estimated that more than 25 per cent of the annual production of iron in the USA is consumed in replacing other iron that has been rendered incerviceable by rusting.

It is necessary, therefore, to wage a constant battle against this chemical process and our immediate concern is how to take care of metallic devices and structures once they enter our possession.

We try to prevent or reduce rusting by various means, such as electroplating, painting or otherwise treating the metals that are susceptible to attack by the agencies of this harmful action.

III. МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ

Модальные глаголы (modal означает «касающийся формы, а не существа») выражают не действие, а отношение к действию (возможность, вероятность и необходимость его совершения), поэтому никогда не употребляются самостоятельно (кроме кратких ответов), а только в сочетании со смысловым глаголом.

 

Модальные глаголы отличаются от других глаголов рядом особенностей:

1. Они не изменяются по лицам и не имеют окончания –s в 3-м лице единственного числа.

2. У них нет неличных форм – инфинитива, причастия и герундия, а следовательно, нет и аналитических видовременных форм.

3. За исключением глаголов can (could) и may (might) имеют только одну форму.

4. Инфинитив смыслового глагола, следующий за модальными, за исключением глагола ought, употребляется без частицы to.

5. В вопросительном и отрицательном предложениях они употребляются без вспомогательного глагола. В вопросительном предложении перед подлежащим ставится сам модальный глагол, в отрицательном отрицание not присоединяется к модальному глаголу.

 

Глагольные способы выражения модальных оттенков долженствования и возможности, наиболее часто встречающиеся в английских научно-технических текстах:

 

1. Долженствование:

Must в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола выражает необходимость или неизбежность совершения действия в силу определенных обстоятельств, а также служит для выражения приказания.

Переводится на русский язык как должен, безличными оборотами нужно, надо, необходимо:

Force must be applied to produce motion. – Чтобы вызвать движение, необходимо приложить силу.

 

In passing through the metal electrons must collide with many ions. – При прохождении через металл, электроны должны сталкиваться со многим ионами.

 

Сочетание глагола must с инфинитивом в пассивной форме удобнее всего переводить безличным или неопределенно-личным предложением (надо, нужно, необходимо, следует):

 

То melt potassium chloride, а temperature of 360 must be reached. – Чтобы расплавить хлористый калий, необходимо поднять температуру до 360.

 

То have (to) в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола выражает необходимость совершения действия в силу определенных обстоятельств и близок по значению к глаголу must, заменителем которого он часто выступает, и переводится как надо, нужно, приходится:

 

Our scientists had to solve many complicated practical problems in the construction of the first atomic power plant. – Нашим ученым пришлось разрешить много сложных практических задач при строительстве первой атомной электростанции.

 

Тo be (to) в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола выражает необходимость, вытекающую из договоренности или намеченного плана, и переводится должен:

 

The new line of the Metro is to be commissioned next spring. – Новая линия метро должна вступить в строй следующей весной.

 

Этот оборот часто выражает возможность или допустимость, особенно в отрицательных предложениях и в предложениях с ограничительным словом only:

 

This kind of information was to be obtained only with great difficulty. – Такие сведения можно было получить только с большим трудом.

 

Should в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола (без частицы to) употребляется со всеми лицами и выражает необходимость, обусловленную моральным долгом или советом, и переводится: должен, следует, следовало бы:

 

You should lower the voltage in the circuit. – Вам следовало бы уменьшить напряжение в цепи.

 

Выражение one should переводится безличным оборотом – нужно, следует:

 

One should take into consideration that electrical currents flow only in complete circuits. – Нужно принять во внимание, что электротоки проходят только в замкнутых цепях.

Ought to с последующим инфинитивом смыслового глагола выражает необходимость, обусловленную моральным долгом или советом и аналогичен глаголу should, но употребляется значительно реже и переводится: должен, следует, следовало бы.

Не ought to know the properties of the mixture. – Ему следовало бы знать свойства этой смеси.

 

2.Возможность:

Can (could) в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола (без частицы to) выражает физическую возможность, способность или умение совершить действие и переводится мочь, уметь:

 

Man can subdue atomic energy. – Человек может подчинить себе атомную энергию.

I can handle the rheostat. – Я умею обращаться с реостатом.

 

Сочетание глагола can с инфинитивом в пассивной форме обычно переводится безличным или неопределенно-личным оборотом:

 

Electric energy generated at the power station can be transmitted over long distances. – Электроэнергию, вырабатываемую на электростанциях, можно передавать на большие расстояния.

 

Выражение one can переводится можно:

 

Using a transformer one can transform power at low voltage into power at high voltage and vice versa. – С помощью трансформатора можно преобразовать ток низкого напряжения в ток высокого напряжения, и наоборот.

 

Заменителем глагола can является оборот to be able (to):

Any moving object is able to do work. – Любой движущийся предмет может произвести работу.

 

May (might) в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола (без частицы to) выражает разрешение или позволение и переводится: могу, можно, разрешено:

 

You may touch the wire, as the circuit is open. – Вы можете дотронуться до провода, т. к. цепь разомкнута.

 

Глагол may нередко выражает также возможность совершения действия аналогично глаголу can:

 

One kilogramme of Uranium may produce 20 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. – Один килограмм урана может дать 20 миллионов киловатт-часов электроэнергии.

 

Глагол may может также выражать предположение, в котором говорящий не уверен, и переводится: может быть, возможно:

 

Не may finish his work today. – Он, может быть (возможно), окончит работу сегодня.

 

 

Упражнение 14. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы:

1. Atomic nuclei can interact with neutrons, electrons, and gamma radiation. 2. As we should infer from the vigour with which its constituents combine, water is a very stable substance. 3. The current can flow through a wire only when the circuit is closed. 4. The magnitude of electrical current may vary from a minute amount to a very large quantity. 5. In the ammeter the current which is to be measured flows between terminals A and B. 6. Speaking about the structure of the atom one should remember that the proton is smaller but heavier than the electron. 7. Only very little current should flow through the voltmeter to operate it and its mechanism must be very delicate and fine. 8. To tear away from the liquid the molecule which leaves it should have a large amount of kinetic energy. 9. Elastic limit is the point beyond which one should not attempt deforming the body if it is to return to its original condition. 10. The convocation of international scientific conferences, which are to be attended by scientists from different countries and belonging to different schools, can undoubtedly promote the development of science. 11. The investment in an atomic reactor must be high, but the running cost is so low that something like a large tanker can be run as cheaply on atomic energy as on conventional fuel.

 

Упражнение 15. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы:

1. Working with picric acid one must remember of its explosive nature. 2. Our scientists had to solve the problem of controlling chain reactions. 3. The nature of the raw material must be taken into consideration in the selection of a method of its analysis. 4. One can obtain better results if the solution is slightly heated. 5. A voltmeter may be connected between any two points whose voltage difference is to be measured. 6. You ought to know the properties of the ingredients. 7. There must be a greater number of turns of wire on the field magnets to produce a magnetic field of adequate strength. 8. If "water gas" is to be used as a source of pure hydrogen, carbon monoxide must be removed. 9. One must remember that any reaction is theoretically reversible. 10. If we are to convert a gas into a liquid, we must increase the attraction of the molecules for one another. 11. The unit of heat should not be confused with the degree of temperature. 12. This explosive may be either a liquid or a solid.

 

 

Упражнение 16. Переведите предложения, обращая особое внимание на значения модальных глаголов:

1. The longest day must have an end. 2. Little friends may prove great friends (Aesop). 3. They who lose today may win tomorrow. 4. A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer. 5. Everything must have a beginning. 6. A man can do no more than he can. 7. Any blind man can see it. 8. You ought by all means to do something. 9. You ought to see the way she dances. 10. A thing moderately good is not so good as it ought to be. 11.Liars need to have good memories. 12. Do as you may if you cannot do as you would. 13. The bird that can sing and will not sing must be made to sing. 14. They must often change who would be constant in happiness or wisdom (Confucius). 15. He that can have patience can have what he will. 16. Life can only be understood backwards; but it must be lived forwards. 17. What the businessmen need to know is how the new developments can be applied to industry.

 

 

Упражнение 17. Переведите текст, обращая особое внимание на глагол should:

Thus the following requirements were suggested:

1) the central adding and multiplying apparatus of the computing machine should be numerical, rather than on a basis of measurement;

2) these mechanisms should depend on electronic tubes rather than on the basis of mechanical relays;

3) the entire sequence of operations should be laid out on the machine itself so that there should be no human interven­tion from the time the data were entered until the final results should be taken off, and all logical decisions necessary for this should be built into the machine itself;

4) the machine should contain an apparatus for the stor­age of data which should record them quickly, hold them firm­ly, read them quickly, erase them quickly, and then be imme­diately available for the storage of new material.

Упражнение 18. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на значения эквивалентов модальных глаголов:

1. Children should be seen not heard. 2. Books and friends should be few but good. 3. If the blind leads the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. 4. As a man lives, so shall he die. 5. We shall see what we shall see. 6. None are so deaf as those who will not hear. 7. None are so blind as those who will not see. 8. He has made his bed, and he has to lie on it. 9. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. 10. He who would write heroic poems should make his whole life a heroic poem (T. Carlyle). 11. All would livelong, but none would be old (B. Franklin). 12. You are in no way to blame for it. 13. What we have to learn to do, we learn by doing (Aristotle). 14. Who is to guard the guards themselves? (Juve­nal). 15. It has to be seen to be believed. 16. My people and I have come to an agreement which satisfies us both. They are to say what they please, and lam to do what I please (Frederick the Great).

 

 

Упражнение 19. Переведите предложения, выделяя модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты:

A. 1. He that cannot obey cannot command. 2. However complex the task it must be done on time. 3. The error must be in his reasoning. 4. Every visible event in nature can be explained by previous events. 5. He believed in work – believed that man ought to eat his bread in the sweat of his brow. 6. The technique of taking Raman spectra cannot be made the subject of detailed discussion. 7. The pressure of one of these points can well be chosen at will. 8. These processes need not be considered in details. 9. Ideal must be composed of things known to us. 10. They must be able to identify the particular error that has occurred in the input. 11. It may not be economic to make the correction while the computer waits. 12. In a conceptual analysis one need only examine the parts. 13. If a person will not do a thing in the way he wants, he must do it in the only way he can. 14. A few words concerning the preparation of specimens may well be in order. 15. A great deal of work need to be done in this area. 16. There is, or ought to be, such a thing as Automation Economics. 17. These relationships do not need to be reexamined. 18. Simplification as a method of understanding can and must be the method of understanding any science. 19. Systems must handle future as well as present needs.

B. 1. As to the heat of the reaction it had to be carefully controlled. 2. They were not allowed to carry out the experi­ment. 3. We have had to investigate a wide range of economic problems as well. 4. This theory shall continue so long as the sun shall shine. 5. However, they were confronted with pressing problems which they had to solve as well as they could. 6. The press was not yet allowed to discuss the problems of emancipa­tion openly. 7. I will open negotiations! 8. We will all follow him, the youngest as well as the oldest. 9. The rate of gas flow does not have to be large. 10. According to the author this theory should hold in all cases. 11. The program or the database does not have to be changed. 12. He may have to stop his experiment. 13. This restriction is severe, but should be welcome to non­mathematical uses. 14. A further possibility that will have to be taken into account in more detailed analysis of the problem is that the ion-pairs in a given solution need not all be of the same type. 15. One of the simpler forms is probably to be preferred. 16. The less progressive firms have been allowed to exist. 17. It has been argued for a long time that programmers should not have to reinvent the wheel every time they write a program. 18. It may take you twelve hours reading to produce an intellectually honest article of a thousand words. In fact you will have to educate yourself as well as your public. 19. This was done for computational convenience; it would not be done in practical applications. 20. We also need not be able to combine these two values.

Упражнение 20. Переведите предложения, выделяя модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты:

1. However useful it may be, it cannot be employed to advan­tage unless it can be obtained in adequate quantities and at reasonable price. 2. The full five names do not have to be speci­fied. 3. For other types of signals the carrier level may have to be increased. 4. In order to make the satellite a whole number of highly involved scientific and engineering problems had to be solved. 5. There will inevitably be components that cannot be reduced entirely to physically measurable quantities and so will have to be evaluated subjectively. 6. The women were not allowed to take their tea breaks until she had left. 7. Bad news should be broken gently and good news all at once. 8. Such a corrupt and despotic government must in itself be weak just when a govern­ment ought to be strong. 9. This latter case is considerably more difficult to represent, since all subcomponents of a program will need to be activated. 10. Special techniques have had to be advised for solving the problem. 11. They will, in general, have to be content with the data available. 12. If computers are ever to gain wide acceptance for process control they must be under­stood by the people who have to operate them. For this reason they should be kept as simple as possible. 13. He may have to supply judgement to cover those aspects of the problem which could not be covered by the research. 14. If a physiologist, who knows no mathematics, works together with a mathematician who knows no physiology, the one will be unable to state his problem in terms that the other can manipulate, and the second will be unable to put the answers in any form that the first can understand.

 

Упражнение 21. Переведите текст, обращая внимание на значения модальных глаголов:

 

EQUILIBRIUM

With what can we associate the word "equilibrium"? We ought to know that the term applies equally well to a motor-car moving along a straight road at a constant speed. From a scientific point of view an object can be in equilibrium not only when it is standing motionless, but also when it is moving in a straight line at constant speed. On the other hand it would not be in equilibrium if it were increasing speed or slowing down or provided it were going around a corner.

Evidently, when there are no forces pulling or pushing a body, that body must always be in equilibrium. However, objects with forces acting on them may also be in equilibrium. But, then, the forces must balance; that is, their vector sum is to equal zero. Thus, in the case of the speeding automobile there are forces acting, but they balance each other in pairs. The pull of gravity downward is counteracted by the push of the road upward. The driving force supplied by the motor is balanced by air resistance and other frictional forces. However, as the driving force supplied by the motor is greater than the frictional resistance, the car is accelerated.

But sometimes an object may not be in equilibrium even though the vector sum of all the forces is zero. It may have a tendency to rotate unless all the forces are applied at a single point, or unless the tendency to rotate in one direction balances the tendency to rotate in the opposite.

Thus the second condition for equilibrium is that the tendency to rotate should be zero. There are always two requirements for equilibrium: first, the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body should be zero; and, second, there must be no tendency to rotate, that is, the tendency to rotate the body in one direction must be balanced by the tendency to rotate it in the opposite direction.

We have to point out the importance of equilibrium in any engineering design and construction. For example, if a house is to stand, each of its parts must evidently be in equilibrium.

 

НЕЛИЧНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА

Наряду с личными формами в английском языке существуют неличные формы глагола: герундий, причастие, инфинитив. Данные формы обладают рядом особенностей, которые необходимо учитывать при чтении и переводе научно-технических текстов.

Неличные формы глагола отличаются от личных форм прежде всего тем, что они не имеют категорий лица, числа и наклонения. Таким образом, герундий, причастие и инфинитив не могут согласовываться с подлежащим и, следовательно, самостоятельно никогда не выступают в функции простого сказуемого.

Другой общей особенностью неличных форм является то, что категория времени у них имеет относительный характер, т.е. их временные отличия приобретают значение лишь в сопоставлении со временем личной формы (сказуемого) данного предложения.

В результате особенностей своего возникновения и исторического развития неличные формы глагола близко соприкасаются с неглагольными категориями и обнаруживают тесную связь: герундий и инфинитив – с существительным, а причастие – с прилагательным.

 

Сопоставление форм с окончанием -ing.

К числу форм, оканчивающихся на -ing относятся:

- Герундий (Gerund):

Voltmeters are used for measuring voltages. – Вольтметры применяются для измерения напряжения.

- Причастие I (Present Participle):

Measuring voltage we use voltmeters. – Измеряя напряжение, мы пользуемся вольтметром.

- Отглагольное существительное (Verbal Noun):

The measuring of voltage is effected by means of voltmeters. – Измерение напряжения осуществляется при помощи вольтметра.

 

 

IV. ПРИЧАСТИЕ I

 

Причастие I (Participle I) является неличной формой глагола. Причастите образуется от инфинитива без частицы to прибавлением окончания -ing. Причастие I соответствует русскому причастию действительного залога (т.е. причастию с суффиксами -ущ, -ющ, -ащ, -ящ,

-вш), например:

 

to play – playing играющий, игравший

to have – having имеющий, имевший

to plan – planning планирующий, планировавший

 

Так же, как и у герундия, временные отличия причастия имеют относительный характер.

Present Participle выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола-сказуемого:

Taking the book he promised to return it soon. – Беря книгу, он обещал скоро ее вернуть.

Perfect Participle выражает действие, предшествующее действию глагола-сказуемого.

Having taken the book, he went away. – Взяв книгу, он ушел.

 

Функции причастия в предложении и их перевод:

 

Одиночные Причастия I и причастные обороты могут играть роль одного из трех членов предложения: определения, обстоятельства и вводного члена предложения.

1. В роли определения (какой?) одиночное причастие может стоять до и после определяемого слова, оборот – ­только после определяемого слова. Причастие I следует переводить причастием действительного залога либо ска­зуемым в придаточном определительном предложении, вводимом союзным словом который, например:

 

Conflicting reports have been published. – Были опубликованы противоречащие (противоречившие) друг другу сообщения (или: которые противоречили друг другу).

A number of animals living in the soil feed of plants. – Целый ряд животных, живущих в земле (или: которые живут в земле), питаются растениями.

 

2. В роли обстоятельства (когда? как? почему? и т. д.) причастие I может стоять в начале или в конце предложе­ния и иногда вводится обстоятельственными словами when – когда, while – когда, пока, в то время как. Переводится оно либо деепричастием (глагольные формы с окончанием -ая, -яя, -ав и др.), либо сказуемым в обстоятельственном при­даточном предложении, для которого (если перед причастием нет союзного слова) подбирается по смыслу союз типа когда, так как, после того как, хотя, если (при этом по­вторяется подлежащее всего предложения, если оборот за­висимый), например:

 

(When) reading books I make notes. – Читая (или: когда я читаю) книги, я делаю пометки.

This universal motor was adopted (as) being more economical. – Этот универсальный мотор был принят, так как он был (является) более экономичным.

 

Если причастный оборот в роли обстоятельства оказы­вается в середине предложения (и в некоторых случаях в конце предложения), то он выделяется запятыми, что ис­ключает возможность принять его за определение к слову, стоящему слева от него. Значит, если перед ing- формой стоит запятая, то оборот следует переводить деепричаст­ным оборотом, обстоятельственным придаточным предло­жением или придаточным предложением, вводимым со­юзом что, например:

 

Water, having weight and occupying space, is a form of matter. – Вода, поскольку она имеет вес и занимает пространство, является формой материи.

We have used the simpler method, eliminating questioning. – Мы использовали более простой метод, что дало возможность избежать опроса.

 

3. Обороты с причастием I в роли вводного члена пред­ложения образуются с глаголами, выражающими ограни­чение, уточнение, обусловленность, типа:

 

allowing for – принимая во внимание;

assuming that – предполагая, что;

beginning with – начиная с;

judging bу – судя по;

sреаking of (for) – говоря о (в пользу);

broadly (generally) sреаking – вообще говоря;

strictly speaking – строго говоря;

roughly speaking – грубо говоря.

 

Причастные обороты в функции вводного члена предложения обязательно выделяются запятыми, на­пример:

 

Putting it mildly, the experiment was not conducted properly. – Мягко говоря, эксперимент не был проведен должным образом.

 

Причастие I в составе сказуемого

1. Причастие I может также входить в состав сказуемого, являясь его смысловой частью. В этом случае причастие стоит после вспомогательного глагола be, который указывает на время, лицо и число и не переводится. Такое сочетание образует форму Continuous.

 

We are developing a new program. – Мы (сейчас) разрабатываем новую программу.

 

2. После глагола be может также употребляться прилагательное, совпадающее по форме с причастием I, что дает составное именное сказуемое, в котором глагол be является связочным, и его можно переводить словами являться, быть.

 

The question is confusing. – Этот вопрос является нечётким (путающим).

 

Образование сложных форм причастия I и их перевод

Participle I (как и другие неличные формы глагола) может иметь сложные формы. И если простую форму причастия (Indefinite Active) можно переводить причастием (определение) или деепричастием (обстоятельс