Text 1 basic definitions in public administration

EXERCISES

Translate the words and their derivatives.

To officiate-office-officer-official-officialese-officialdom

To implement-implementation

To legitimize-legitimist-legitimacy-legitimization-legitimate

To administer-administration-administrator-administrative

To pervert-perversion-perversity-perverseness-perverse

Find the synonyms to the words from list A in list B.

A: legal, to rule, to keep, cruelty, misuse, dominion, entity, empirical, shop, endeavor, to encompass, to enforce

В: to govern, power, to put into effect, organization, post, to include, juridical, practicable, try, to maintain, violence, abuse

3. Give the Russian equivalents to the following English word-combinations and phrases from the text.

Influential definition; monopoly on legitimate violence over a specific territory; rules and laws; free from outside influence; making agreements; to declare war; government involvement; the rule of the officialdom; the perversion of means and ends; day-today functions

Translate the sentences paying attention to different meanings of the word «way».

1. She's come a long way in her studies.

2. They paused at the top of stairs, doubtful as to which way to go next.

3. He had his own way in the end.

4. I'll find a way to do it.

5. She smiled in a friendly way.

6. They are alike in most important ways.

7. He is in a terrible way.

8. Unemployment is way above the official figure.

9. Way to go, Mary! You've done a great job!

10. If you speak standard English anywhere round our way, people tend to view you with suspicion.

Find in the text the English for.

a. все люди

b. вооруженные силы

c. просить помощи у богов

d. вводить ответственные должности

e. административно-территориальная единица

f. поддерживать дипломатические отношения

g. групповые интересы

h. пропагандистско-агитационная деятельность

i. социально-культурные рычаги управления

Match up the following half – sentences.

1. In autocracies one individual	office power.
2. In oligarchies political power is	a lack of government.
3. Democracies are	governments where peo­ple as a whole hold the power.
4. Anarchy is	holds all the power.
5. A government is	of a government to exert control over its territory.
6. Sovereignty is the ability	held by a small group of people who share the same interests.
7. Bureaucracy means	a body intended to en­force rules and laws within different groups.

Answer the questions.

1. What is a state?

2. What is a government?

3. How are governments classified as?

4. What methods do governments employ to maintain the estab­lished order?

5. What methods are designed to maintain support and legiti­macy?

6. What is bureaucracy?

7. Why is it necessary to control the bureaucracy?

8. How can public administration be described?

9. What activities is public management involved in?

10. What is public management?

Sum up the contents of the text.

Read text 2 and headline it.

Text 2

The history of the state in the West usually begins with classical antiquity. During that period, the state took a variety of forms, none of them very much like the modern state. There were monarchies whose power (like that of the Egyptian Pharaoh) was based on the religious function of the king and his control of a centralized army.

Perhaps the most important political innovations of classical an­tiquity came from the Greek city-states and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population, and in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long af­terlife in political thought and history.

In contrast, Rome developed from a monarchy into a republic, governed by a senate dominated by the Roman aristocracy. The Ro­man political system contributed to the development of law, constitu­tionalism and to the distinction between the private and the public spheres.

The story of the development of the specifically modern state in the West typically begins with the dissolution of the western Roman em­pire. The state-system of feudal Europe was an unstable configuration of suzerains and anointed kings. A monarch, formally at the head of a hierarchy of sovereigns, was not an absolute power who could rule at will; instead, relations between lords and monarchs were mediated by varying degrees of mutual dependence, which was ensured by the ab­sence of a centralized system of taxation. This reality ensured that each ruler needed to obtain the «consent» of each estate in the realm.

The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the mon­arch and other elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the state of Estates, character­ized by parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. Beginning in the 15th centu­ry, this centralizing process gives rise to the absolutist state..

The rise of the «modern state» as a public power constituting the supreme political authority within a defined territory is associated with western Europe's gradual institutional development beginning in ear­nest in the late 15th century, culminating in the rise of absolutism and capitalism.

As Europe's dynastic states–England under the Tudors, Spain under the Hapsburgs, and France under the Bourbons–embarked on a variety of programs designed to increase centralized political and economic control, they increasingly exhibited many of the institution­al features that characterize the «modern state.» This centralization of power involved the delineation of political boundaries, as European monarchs gradually defeated or co-opted other sources of power, such as the Church and lesser nobility. In place of the fragmented system of feudal rule, with its often indistinct territorial claims, large, unitary states with extensive control over definite territories emerged. This process gave rise to the highly centralized and increasingly bu­reaucratic forms of absolute monarchical rule of the 17th and 18th centuries, when the principal features of the contemporary state sys­tem took form, including the introduction of a standing army, a cen­tral taxation system, diplomatic relations with permanent embassies, and the development of state economic policy–mercantilism.

N o t e s:

dissolution	1. распад
suzerain ['suizarein]	2. сюзерен
anointed kings	3. миропомазанные короли
sovereign ['sovrin]	4. монарх, правитель
taxation	5. налогообложение
consent	6. согласие, разрешение
realm	7. государство, королевство
the state of Estates	8. сословное государство
to embark	9. начинать
to co-opt	10. кооптировать
nobility	11. аристократия
standing army	12. регулярная армия
embassy	13. посольство

 

Render into English.

Государство – это политическая целостность, созданная национальной и многонациональной общностью людей на определенной территории, где с помощью политической элиты, монополизирующей власть, поддерживается юриди­ческий порядок, включая законное право на применение силы.

Признаками государства являются: публичная власть, располагающая специальным аппаратом управления и при­нуждения (армия, полиция, суд); территория, на которую распространяется юрисдикция данного государства (право производить суд); система права.

Государственное управление – это система принятия политических и административных решений, которые про­водятся в жизнь с помощью административно-государствен­ного аппарата.

Американские политологи Ф. Нигро и Л. Нигро дают оп­ределение государственному администрированию: «Государ­ственное администрирование означает скоординированные групповые действия в государственных делах:

1. связанные с тремя сферами власти – законодательной, исполнительной, судебной – и их взаимодействием;

2. имеющие важное значение в формировании государ­ственной политики и являющиеся частью политическо­го процесса;

3. значительно отличающиеся от администрирования в ча­стном секторе;

4. тесно связанные с многочисленными частными группа­ми и индивидами, работающими в различных компани­ях и общинах».

 

It's interesting to know

Business English

TALKING ON THE PHONE

GRAMMAR

It's important to be polite when talking to someone in a business context.

One can show politeness by:

1. Using «please,» «thank you,» «thanks»

2. Using «would» or «could»

3. Making the sentence long.

Take the following sentences:

Take a message for him.

Please, take a message for him.

Will you take a message for him?

Would you take a message for him?

Would you mind taking a message for him?

Can you take a message for him?

Could you take a message for him?

Could you possibly take a message for him?

Might I trouble you for taking a message for him?

I wonder if you could take a message for him.

I wondered if you could take a message for him.

I was wondering if you could take a message for him.

The first sentence is the imperative form. If you were speak­ing to a very good friend, then you might use this direct command. Because you know the other person very well, it would be ap­propriate to be direct. Politeness can be expressed by choosing appropriate grammar. The effect of the Past Tense (sentence 11) is to make the request indirect, and therefore more polite. The Past Progressive form (the last sentence) is used when we ask someone to do some considerable or risky work.

1. Fill in the blanks, indicating whether each of the following sentences is somewhat polite (S), quite polite (Q), or very polite (V). Notice the indirect phrasing of the most polite requests. For example:

Could you pass the butter? S

Would you please pass the butter? Q

Might I trouble you to pass the butter? V

1. Could you help me? ___

2. Would you like some help? ___

3. Might I be of assistance? ___

4. Could you come with us? ___

5. Might I trouble you for accompanying us? ___

6. Would you like to come with us? ___

7. Could I have your opinion on this? ___

8. Would you please tell me what you think? ___

9. Might I know your feelings on the matter? ___

 

Read and act out dialogues.

Michelle:	Hello, you've reached the marketing department. How can I help?
Male:	Yes, can I speak to Rosalind Wilson, please?
Michelle:	Who's calling please?
Male:	It's Richard Davies here.
Michelle	Certainly. Please, hold on and I'll put you through.
Male:	Thank you.

Michelle:	Hello, marketing. How can I help?
Male:	Could I speak to Jason Roberts, please?
Michelle:	Certainly. Who shall I say is calling?
Male:	My name's Mike Andrews.
Michelle	Just a second–I'll see if he's in. Hello, Jason, I've got Mike Andrews on the phone for you... OK, I'll put him through. Hang on a moment, I'm just putting you through.

Claire:	Hello, finance department.
Female:	Hello, can I speak to Adrian Hopwood, please?
Claire	I'm afraid he's in a meeting at the moment. Can I help?
Female:	No, I need to talk to Mr. Hopwood, I think. What time will he be out of the meeting?
Claire:	In about an hour. Can you call back later?
Female:	Okay, I'll do that.
Claire:	Or can I take a message?
Female:	Actually, would you mind? Could you tell him that Jennifer McAndrews called and that I'm in the office all day if he could call me back
Claire:	Can I take your number, please?
Female:	Yes, it's 5556872.
Claire:	5556872. Okay, I'll make sure he gets the message.
Female:	Thanks very much for your help, bye!
Claire:	Goodbye!

Male:	Hello, this is the press office.
Michelle:	Rachel Allsop, please.
Male:	I'm sorry; you must have the wrong number. There's no one of that name here.
Michelle:	Oh. Can I check the number I've got.... Is that not 5568790?
Male:	No, it's 5558790.
Michelle:	Oh sorry about that. I must have dialed the wrong number.
Male:	No problem! Bye

Male:	Hello, press office, can I help you?
Ruth:	Hello. Paul Richards, please.
Male:	I'm sorry, you've got the wrong number, but he does work here. I'll try and put you through. In future his direct number is 5558770.
Ruth:	Did I not dial that?
Male:	No, you rang 5558790.
Ruth:	Oh, sorry to have troubled you.
Male:	No problem. Hang on a moment and I'll put you through to Paul's extension.
Ruth:	Thanks.

Michelle:	Mr. Hibberd's office!
Peter:	Hello, can I speak to Brian Hibberd, please?
Michelle:	I'm afraid he's in a meeting until lunchtime. Can I take a message?
Peter:	Well, I'd like to arrange an appointment to see him, please. It's Peter Jefferson here.
Michelle:	Could you hold on for a minute, Mr Jefferson. I'll just look in the diary. So when's convenient for you?
Peter:	Sometime next week if possible. I gather he's away the following week.
Michelle:	Yes, that's right, he's on holiday for a fortnight.
Peter:	Well, I need to see him before he goes away. So would next Wednesday be Okay?
Michelle:	Wednesday... let me see... he's out of the office all morning. But he's free in the afternoon, after about three.
Peter:	Three o'clock is difficult. But I could make it after four.
Michelle:	So shall we say 4.15 next Wednesday, in Mr. Hib­berd's office?
Peter:	Yes, that sounds fine. Thanks very much.
Michelle:	Okay, then. Bye.

Word List

to coin	выдумывать
enlightenment	просвещение
judiciary	судебная власть; законный, судебный
the court of law	суд, действующий по нормам статусного и общего права
to mingle	смешивать(ся); общаться с кем-л., собираться
restraint	ограничение, стеснение, сдерживание; лишение свободы
to induce	заставлять, побуждать, склонять, убеждать; вызывать, стимулировать, приводить; делать вывод
checks and balances	принцип взаимозависимости и взаимоограничения трех ветвей государственной власти
to enact	предписывать, определять, устанавливать, вводить закон; постановлять
to ratify	ратифицировать, одобрять, скреплять подписью
to veto	налагать вето
to promulgate	объявлять, провозглашать; опубликовывать, пропагандировать, распространять
to grant pardons	по(миловать); оставлять без наказания
to nullify	аннулировать, отменять
to compel	заставлять, вынуждать, принуждать
testimony	свидетельские показания; доказательство, довод, свидетельство
petitioner	проситель, податель петиции; истец
immune	в безопасности, защищенный, огражденный; пользующийся неприкосновенностью
threshold ['Orejhsuld]	порог; преддверие, начало, отправной пункт
convicted criminals	преступники, отбывающие наказание
abuse	злоупотребление, неправильное употребление
pending legislation	законодательство на рассмотрении, законопроект
election	выборы, избрание

Text 1

SEPARATION OF POWERS

Separation of powers, or «Trias Politica» – a term coined by French political Enlightenment thinker Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the governance of democratic states. Montesquieu described division of political power between an executive, a legislature, and a judiciary. He based this model on the British constitutional system, in which he perceived a separation of powers between king, Parliament, and the courts of law. Subsequent writers have noted that this was mis­leading, since Great Britain had a very closely connected legislature and executive, with further links to the judiciary (though combined with judicial independence). But in Montesquieu's time, the political connection between Britain's Parliament and the king's Ministry was not as close as it would later become.

All democracies exist with an absolute separation of powers or an absolute lack of separation of powers. Nonetheless, some systems are clearly founded on the principle of separation of powers, while oth­ers are clearly based on a mingling of powers.

Each branch is able to place specified restraints on the powers ex­erted by the other branches. The US system refers to the branches as «branches of government,» while some systems use «government» to describe the executive.

To prevent one branch from becoming supreme, and to induce the branches to cooperate, governance systems employing a separation of powers typically are created with a system of «checks and balanc­es,» a term which, like separation of powers itself, is generally credit­ed to Montesquieu. Checks and balances refers to the various proce­dural rules that allow one branch to limit another, such as the au­thority of the president to veto legislation passed by Congress, or the power of Congress to alter the composition and jurisdiction of the federal courts.

Legislative	Executive	Judicial
1. writes and enacts laws; 2. enacts taxes, authorizes borrowing, and sets the budget; 3. usually has sole power to declare war; 4. may start investigations, especially against the executive branch; 5. often appoints the heads of the executive branch; 6. sometimes appoints judges. 7. ratifies treaties.	1. sometimes may veto laws; 2. may refuse to enforce certain laws (risking impeachment by the legislature); 3. may refuse to spend money allocated for certain purposes; 4. wages war (has operational command of the military); 5. makes decrees or declarations (for example, declaring a state of emergency) and promulgates lawful regulations and executive orders; 6. often appoints judges; 7. sometimes has power to grant pardons to convicted criminals.	1. determines which laws apply to any given case; 2. determines whether a law is unconstitutional; 3. has sole power to interpret the law and to apply it to particular disputes; 4. may nullify laws that conflict with a more important law or constitution; 5. determines the disposition of prisoners; 6. has power to compel testimony and the production of evidence; 7. enforces uniform policies in a top-down fashion via the appeals process, but gives discretion in individual cases to low-level judges (the amount of discretion depends upon the standard of review, determined by the type of case in question.); 8. may rule only in cases of an actual dispute brought between actual petitioners; 9. polices its own members; 10. is frequently immune to arbitrary dismissal by other branches

 

The theoretical independence of the executive and legislative branches is partly maintained by the fact that they are separately elected and are held directly accountable to the public. There are also judicial prohibitions against certain types of interference in each oth­ers' affairs. Judicial independence is maintained by life appointments of judges, with voluntary retirement, and a high threshold for remov­al by the legislature. In recent years, there have been accusations that the power to interpret the law is being misused (judicial activism) by some judges in the US.

The legal mechanisms constraining the powers of the three branches depend a great deal on the sentiment of the people. The sys­tem of checks and balances is also self-reinforcing. Potential abuse of power may be deterred, and the legitimacy and sustainability of any power grab is hindered by the ability of the other two branches to take corrective action; though they still must actually do so, there­fore accountability is not automatic. This is intended to reduce oppor­tunities for tyranny.

The press has been described as a «fourth power» because of its considerable influence over public opinion (which in turn affects the outcome of elections), as well as its indirect influence in the branch­es of government by, for example, its support or criticism of pend­ing legislation or policy changes. It has never, however, been a formal branch of government; nor have political philosophers suggested that it become one.

 

EXERCISES

1. Look through the list of the words in the box and make sure you know their meaning. Using the word-building elements make de­rivatives of the following words.

to separate	to retire	sustainable	procedure
to connect	to impeach	direct	active
to compose	to appoint	part	critic
to prohibit	accountable	constitution	form

 

nouns	adjectives	adverbs
-tion	-ty	-ment	-ism	-al	-ly
разде- ление состав запрет связь	устой- чивость ответст- венность	импич- мент назначение увольнение	крити- цизм активизм офици- альный	конститу- ционный процес- суальный	частично, отчасти прямо, непосредст- венно

Answer the questions.

1. What are the functions of the executive/legislature/judiciary?

2. How is the independence of the executive and legislative branches maintained?

3. How is judicial independence maintained?

4. What does the legal mechanisms constraining the powers of the three branches depend on?

5. What is the legitimacy and sustainability of any power grab hindered by?

6. Why is the press described as a «fourth power»?

Text 2

SEPARATION OF POWERS

VS. FUSION OF POWERS

In organizing a democratic system of governance, there... a contin­uum between what... «Presidential government» and «Parliamentary government.» «Separation of powers» is a feature more inherent to presidential systems, whereas «Fusion of powers» is... of parliamen­tary systems. There also exist «mixed systems,» which fall somewhere near the midpoint of the continuum, most notably France's (cur­rent) Fifth Republic.

With fusion of powers, one... (invariably the elected legislature) is supreme, and the other branches are subservient to it. In a separa­tion of powers, each branch is largely (although not necessarily en­tirely)... of the other branches. By independent, political scientists mean that each branch is either... independently of the other branches, or at least is not dependent upon the other branches for its continued existence.

Accordingly, in a fusion of powers system–the best-known is that of the United Kingdom, which was first... as such by Walter Bage-hot–the legislature is... by the people, and then this legislature «cre­ates» the executive. As Professor Cheryl Saunders writes, «...the in­termixture of institutions [in the UK] is such that it is almost impos­sible to describe it as a separation of powers.» In a separation of powers, the person or persons (executive branches can have multiple members) of the executive are not selected by the legislature, but by some other means (direct popular electoral college selection, etc.) In a parliamentary system, when the term of the legislature ends, so too may the tenure of the executive selected by that legisla­ture. In a «presidential» system, the executive's term may or may not coincide with the legislature's, but again, his selection is technically... of the legislature. However, when the executive's party... the legis­lature, there may sometimes develop an effective «fusion of powers» in favor of the executive. Such situations may thwart the constitution­al goal or normal popular perception that the legislature is the more... branch or the one «closer to the people,» reducing it to a virtual «consultative assembly,» politically or procedurally unable, or un­willing, to hold the executive... in the event of blatant».

N o t e s:

inherent	1. неотъемлемый, присущий, свойственный
supreme	2. главный
subservient	3. подчиненный, зависимый
electoral college	4. коллегия выборщиков (избираемая в штатах для выборов президента и вице-президента)
term/tenure	5. срок
to coincide	6. совпадать
to thwart	7. противоречить
blatant	8. вопиющий, ужасный

Text 3

Answer the questions.

1. What is the UK system distinguished by?

2. What is the democratic system in India characterized by?

3. What powers are there in Italy?

4. What countries are with little separation of powers?

5. What country offers an example of non-Presidential separa­tion of powers?

6. What branches are there in Costa Rica?

7. How many branches does the European Union include?

Render into English.

Разделение властей сегодня является общепризнанной нормой функционирования демократического государства. Отсутствие монополии на власть любого политического ин­ститута – непременное условие развития демократии. В со­временных демократических государствах три ветви власти представлены следующим образом: законодательная власть, исполнительная власть, судебная власть.

Высшим законодательным органом выступает парламент, который, как правило, состоит из двух палат: нижней и вер­хней. Нижняя палата формируется посредством прямых выбо­ров, а верхняя формируется в различных странах по-разному.

Исполнительная ветвь государственной власти имеет бо­лее сложную структуру, это самая многочисленная по соста­ву ветвь государственного управления. В России в органах ис­полнительной власти насчитывается около 500 тыс. человек.

Взаимодействие законодательной и исполнительной вла­сти является весьма сложной проблемой. Исполнительная власть – президент (или премьер-министр) и правительство – обязаны в той или иной мере согласовывать свои действия с законодательными институтами, отчитываться перед ними. В президентских республиках глава государства может наложить запрет на любой законодательный документ или требовать его доработки. В то же время парламент имеет право отменить ка­кие-то решения правительства или президента.

Основным гарантом соблюдения законности в деятель­ности законодательной и исполнительной властей является судебная власть. Во многих странах надзор за соблюдением конституции возложен на Верховный суд.

It's interesting to know

Word List

 

to bind together	объединять(ся); связывать вместе
authority	власть; полномочие; авторитет
national government	центральное, национальное правительство
lo favor	помогать, поддерживать, оказывать помощь, способствовать
sub-national state	субъект Федерации
to strive	стараться, бороться, прилагать усилия
to infringe	нарушать; преступать (закон, обязательство, клятву); посягать (на чьи-л. права и т.д.)
to enshrine	надежно хранить, лелеять
due process	надлежащая правовая процедура
minority group	группа меньшинства
judicial review	судебное ограничение; судебный надзор
to overrule	господствовать, властвовать; одержать победу; отклонять, отказывать, отменять
arbitrary	произвольный, случайный; деспотичный
treaty	договор
issue	спорный вопрос, проблема
currency	валюта
to resemble	иметь сходство
Pan-European	Общеевропейский
to cancel	отменять

Text 1

SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT

Political federalism is a political philosophy in which a group of members is bound together with a governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central govern­ing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces). Federalism is the system in which the power to govern is shared be­tween the national & state governments, creating what is often called a federation. Proponents are often called federalists.

In parts of Europe, «federalist» is often used to describe those who favor a stronger federal government (or European Union government) and weaker provincial governments. The same is historically true in the United States, with those who generally favor a confederation, or weaker federal government and stronger state governments, being called «anti-federalists.» In federal nations of Europe (such as Germa­ny, Austria and Switzerland), the term «strong federalism» means sub-national states having more power than the national government, in contrast with a centralist system. In Canada, federalism means opposi­tion to sovereigntist movements (usually that of Quebec).

The state or regional governments strive to cooperate with all the nations. The old statement of this position can be found in The Feder­alist, that argued that federalism helps enshrine the principle of due process, limiting arbitrary action by the state. First, federalism can limit government power to infringe rights, since it creates the possi­bility that a legislature wishing to restrict liberties will lack the consti­tutional power, while the level of government that possesses the pow­er lacks the desire. Second, the legalistic decision-making processes of federal systems limit the speed with which governments can act.

The capacity of a federal system to protect civil liberties has been disputed. Often there is confusion between the rights of individuals with those of states. In Australia, for example, some of the major intergovernmental conflicts in recent decades have been the direct re­sult of federal intervention to secure the rights of minority groups, and required limitations on the powers of state governments. It is also essential to avoid confusion between the constraints set by judicial re­view, the power of the courts to overrule the legislature and the ex­ecutive, and federalism itself.

A confederation is an association of sovereign states or communi-lies, usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common con­stitution. Confederations tend to be established for dealing with criti­cal issues, such as defense, foreign affairs, foreign trade, and a com­mon currency, with the central government being required to provide support for all members. A confederation, in modem political terms, is usually limited to a permanent union of sovereign states for com­mon action in relation to other states.

The nature of the relationship between the entities constituting a confederation varies considerably.Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the central government, and the distribution of powers among them, is highly variable. Some looser confederations are similar to international organizations, while tighter confedera­tions may resemble federations.

In a non-political context, confederation is used to describe a type of organization which consolidates authority from other semi-auton­omous bodies. Examples include sports confederations or confedera­tions of Pan-European trades unions.

The noun confederation refers to the process of (or the event of) confederating; i.e., establishing a confederation (or by extension a fed­eration). In Canada–now a relatively decentralized federation com­pared to more centralized federations like the United States–»Con­federation» generally refers to the British North America Act, 1867 which initially united three colonies of British North America (Prov­ince of Canada, Province of New Brunswick and Province of Nova Scotia), and to the subsequent incorporation of other colonies and territories. Despite this use of the word «confederation,» Canada is a federal state.

In politics, unitarisation is a process of uniting a political entity which consists of smaller regions, either by canceling the regions completely or by transferring their power to the central government. Politics which favors this process is called unitarism. Opposite process is called regionalization.

A unitary state usually has a unicameral legislature. Furthermore, the smaller regions within a unitary state do not have a contract (con­stitution) with the larger, more centralized government. Thus, the smaller regions government and powers are not «protected» by being entrenched in the constitution. Regionalization and notarization are often confused with, respectively, decentralization and centralization.

EXERCISES

Text 2

FEDERATION

The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation, a rep­resentative democracy with a government regulated by a system... checks and balances defined by the United States Constitution. TheConstitution replaced the Articles of Confederation, which were in effect... 1781 to 1789. However, it is «not a simple representative de­mocracy, but a constitutional republic in which majority rule is tem­pered... minority rights protected by law.» Citizens are usually subject... three levels of government, federal, state, and local; the local gov­ernment's duties may themselves be split... county, metropolitan, and municipal governments. Officials...all levets are either elected by vot­ers in a secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Executive and legislative offices are decided by a plurality vote of citizens... dis­trict. Federal and state judicial and cabinet officials are typically nom­inated by the executive branch and approved by the legislature, al­though some state judges are elected by popular vote. The federal government is comprised... three branches:

• Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made... of the Senate

and the House of Representatives makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the rarely used power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.

• Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the

military, can veto bills, and appoints the Cabi­net and other officers, who administer and en­force federal laws and policies.

• Judiciary: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts,

whose judges are appointed by the president... Senate approval, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.

The United States Constitution is the supreme legal document in the American system, and serves as a social contract... the people of the United States, regulating their affairs... representatives chosen by and drawn from the people. All laws and procedures of both state and feder­al governments are subject... review, and any law ruled in violation ol the Constitution by the judicial branch is overturned. The Constitution can be amended by two methods, both of which require the approval... three-fourths of the states. The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times, including the 1791 Bill of Rights, which guarantees freedom of speech, religion, and the press; the right to keep and bear arms;

the right to a fair trial; and property rights. However, the extent... which these rights are protected and universal in practice is heavily debated. The Constitution vaguely guarantees... every State «a Republican Form of Government.» The Constitution also defines presidential term limits and Congress's size. The House of Representatives has 435 members, each representing a congressional district... a two-year term. House neats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. As of the 2000 census, seven states have the minimum... one representative, while California, the most populous state, has fifty-three. Each state has two senators, elected... -large to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up... election every second year.

Not e s:

representative democracy	- представительная демократия
to temper	- заставлять подчиниться
county	- округ (административно-территориальная единица США)
metropolitan	- относящийся к столице или большому городу
municipal government	- органы муниципального управления
secret ballot	- тайное голосование
plurality vote	- большинство голосов
popular vote	- голоса избирателей
the power of the purse	- власть кошелька (исторически сложившееся и закрепленное в Конституции США право палаты представителей контролировать расходование государственных средств исполнительными органами власти)
commander in chief of the military	- верховный главнокомандующий всеми военными силами государства
to overturn	- отменять
to amend	- вносить изменения, поправки
air trial	- судебное разбирательство с соблюдением процессуальных гарантий

 

	Composition	Functions
Legislature	The Senate	…	…
…
Executive	…	1. the commander-in-chief of the military … 3.
Judiciary	…	…	1. to interpret laws 2. to overturn laws they deem unconstitutional

 

Text 3

CONFEDERATION

Switzerland is considered by many to be the most democratic country in the world. It is also one of the world's most successful na­tions in economic terms. The Swiss people have the highest per-capita incomes in the world, and Switzerland is consistently rated among the top ten nations in terms of quality of life.

The key to Swiss success is not to be found in natural resources (which are in extremely short supply); nor does it lie in the tempera­ment of its 6.4 million people, who are essentially no different from the Germans, Italians and French in the remainder of Europe. It lies rather in Switzerland's political institutions, which ensure that ordi­nary citizens are involved in political decision-making, and that no one interest group is able to benefit unduly at the expense of another.

Switzerland is small – about one quarter the size of the US State of Ohio – and it is divided into 26 areas called cantons. The cantons are comprised of approximately 3000 communes.

The matters of common interest include foreign policy, national defense, federal railways and the mint. All other issues – education, labor, economic and welfare policies and so on – are determined by the governments of the cantons and communes. Each canton has its own parliament and constitution and they differ substantially from one another. The communes, which vary in size from a few hundred to more than a million people, also have their own legislative and ex­ecutive councils. The cantonal and communal governments are elect­ed by the citizens resident in their areas of jurisdiction.

A central or federal government links the cantons into one uni­fied country, but this central government controls only those affairs which are of interest to all the cantons. The Swiss Government con­sists of the seven members of the Federal Council who are elected by the United Federal Assembly (the Parliament) for a four-year man­date. The President of the Swiss Confederation is elected for one year and is regarded as Primus inter pares, or first among equals, for this period. She leads the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties. In 2007 this office is held by Micheline Calmy-Rey.

The national parliament consists of two houses: the popular house, which is elected by proportional representation under a system of free lists which allows all shades of political opinion to be ex­pressed; and the Council of States, which has two representatives from each canton and one from each half-canton, is elected in most cases by a simple majority.

Four political parties dominate the central government. None has a clear majority in either house and they are all represented in the cabinet (the national executive). Instead of the adversarial system com­mon to many democracies, Swiss political groups have to work to­gether to achieve consensus. A different president is elected by mem­bers of the central government every year.

The federal government's jurisdiction is limited to those areas specified in the constitution. Once approved by both houses, new leg­islation is also subject to approval by the people in an optional refer­endum. The citizens have a six-month period during which a referen­dum can be called by any individual or group able to obtain 50,000 signatures on a petition. If the proposed legislation is rejected by a sim­ple majority vote, it falls away.

Notes:

per-capita income	- доход на душу населения
unduly	- чрезмерно
canton	- кантон
commune	- коммуна
mint	- выпуск денег
the United Federal Assembly	- Объединенная Федеральная Ассамблея
the popular house	- Национальныйсовет
the Council of States	- Советкантонов

 

12. Answer the questions:

1) Where can the key to Swiss success be found?

2) How many cantons (communes) is Switzerland divided into?

3) What issues are determined by cantons(communes)?

4) What are cantons (communes) governed by?

5) What affairs does the central government control?

6) How many members does the Swiss Government consist of?

7) How many years is the President of Swiss Confederation elected for?

8) What does the national parliament consist of?

9) What is new legislation subject to?

10) When does the proposed legislation fall away?

 

It's interesting to know

· Read and render into English (Russian).

Aristotle

In his book Politics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle asserted that man is, by nature, a political animal. He argued that ethics and poli­tics are closely linked, and that a truly ethical life can only be lived by someone who participates in politics.

Like Plato, Aristotle identified a number of different forms of gov­ernment, and argued that each «correct» form of government may devolve into a «deviant» form of government, in which its institutions were corrupted.According to Aristotle, kingship, with one ruler, de­volves into tyranny; aristocracy, with a small group of rulers, devolves into oligarchy; and polity, with collective rule by many citizens, de­volves into democracy. In this sense, Aristotle does not use the word «democracy» in its modern sense, carrying positive connotations, but In its literal sense of rule by the demos, or common people.

 

ТЕМА № 21. CIVIL SERVICE

Word List

devastating	огромный, поразительный, уничтожающий
unchallenged	не вызывающий возражения
merit	заслуга
non-partisan	внепартийный, беспартийный; беспристрастный
probity	честность, неподкупность
propriety	соблюдение норм поведения и морали
framework	структура, строение; рамки
to codify	систематизировать
ethos	характер, преобладающая черта, дух
to underpin	поддерживать, подкреплять
implicit	подразумевающий, имплицитный, скрытый
explicit	ясный, точный, подробный
Assumption	предположение
diligent	прилежный, старательный, исполнительный
advancement	продвижение
gifted	способный, талантливый
amateur	непрофессионал, любитель
to call for	нуждаться, требоваться
to herald	уведомлять, извещать, объявлять
incarnation	воплощение, олицетворение
landmark	веха, поворотный пункт, ориентир
to take shape	формироваться
hierarchy	иерархия
grade	ранг
gross-cutting	комплексный
to tackle	пытаться найти решение каких-л. вопросов
senior	вышестоящий, главный, стоящий рангом выше
agenda	план мероприятий, программа работы; повестка дня на собрании
to set out	излагать
devolution	передача или переход (прав, власти, обязанностей, имущества и т.п.)
delegation	делегирование, передача полномочий, функций
aspiration	сильное желание, стремление
to challenge	ставить под вопрос, оспаривать, призывать к рассмотрению
red tape	волокита, бюрократизм
incentive	поощрения (материальные)
reward	премия, вознаграждение
to empower	давать (официальное) разрешение; помогать, оказывать поддержку; уполномочивать
Cabinet Secretary	секретарь кабинета (государственный служащий высокого ранга, Великобритания)
joined up	непредвзятый; с широким видением проблемы
core	основной, центральный
competence	способность, данные, знания

 

Text 1

CIVIL SERVICE

In the UK, the term «civil service» describes those working for lite central organs of government–an analogy in Russia would be Federal Ministries, Committees and agencies. It includes 300,000 staff working in local and regional offices of those organizations, but ex­cludes, for example, local government workers, the health service, fife service, police, etc.

The UK Civil Service has a long tradition, dating back to the re­forms that followed from a devastating critique of Civil Service practices published in 1854. Since then, a number of guiding principles have remained unchanged (if not, perhaps, unchallenged) to this day. These include:

· fair and open competition for jobs on the basis of merit;

· a largely career-based, «permanent» civil service giving honest, impartial and non-political (i.e. non-partisan) advice to the Government of whatever party happens to be in power;

· high standards of probity and propriety in all professional ac­tivities.

Secondly, there are also some key features of the British State that have shaped the face of the Civil Service.

· The UK has long been a unitary state with power residing cen­trally in the Westminster Parliament. This remains true, al­though there is now some limited devolution to regional juris­dictions (the Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales and Northern Ireland Assembly).

· The «first past the post» electoral system means that two main parties dominate politics,- with the party in government being usually able to develop and push through its own programs, including administrative reform.

· There is no codified, written constitution and a minimal fra­mework of administrative law – most of the (significant) transformation of the Civil Service in the 1980s was achieved without recourse to law, and by Ministers and civil servants acting within their existing powers.

· The UK has a strong civil society and private sector–Thiopened up the possibility of privatization of State resources in a way which is not always a valid or realistic option for countries with less developed, non-State sectors.

For the first 30 years after World War II, the UK Civil Service grew considerably in numbers but changed little in culture. In its rather cozy and protected world, the service continued to be monolithic with a prevailing ethos that–with the exception of some special services–all functions could be organized in more-or-less the saw way. There was a general understanding about what the «rules» were underpinned by an implicit assumption that civil servants, by definition, acted in the public interest and not in their own private, per sonal interests.

For most, the civil service offered a career for life. For the han working and diligent, advancement came (eventually). The primar function of most senior grades was to provide policy advice to Ministers, and this was still seen as a civil service monopoly.

By the 1960s, however, there was widespread concern about Briiain's changing place in the world and the uncompetitiveness of in economy. In 1968 the Fulton Report addressed this perceived skill deficit, seeking to replace the more intuitive judgments of the sc called «gifted amateur» with harder managerial and technical skills The report called for:

· more professional Civil Service, challenging the role of the gifted amateur;

· modern a managerial skills;

· senior levels more open to talent from the lower ranks an from the outside.

Heralded as radical at the time, the Fulton Report ultimatel failed to remodel the civil service in any significant way. It did, however, disturb the status quo and left institutional landmarks in the shape of a new Civil Service Department to handle pay and improve personnel management, and the first incarnation of the Civil Service College.

The concept of «New Public Management» began to take shape The impact on the Civil Service was stark. In the period from 1976 ь 1999:

· The number of civil servants reduced by 40% – from 751,000 (working in monolithic departments, with their main focus on policy advice to Ministers) to 460,000. 78% of these worked in 138 new Executive Agencies and equivalents, managed by «con­tract» with their Departments and focusing on service delivery;

· The old uniform departmental hierarchies–with 15 general grades from permanent secretary (the highest) to clerical as­sistant (the lowest)–had been abandoned. A new Senior Civil Service was formed from the top 5 grades and career-managed from the centre. All other pay and grading was decentralized to Departments and agencies, and the central Civil Service Department had been abolished.

· Many services had been privatized altogether (for example IT).

In efficiency and cost reduction terms, the reforms were a success, httt there were some critical weaknesses. In particular:

· Reforms concentrated on management issues but neglected policy advice.

· The strong focus on efficiency and targets for individual or­ganizations meant that «cross-cutting» policy issues were harder to tackle.