The emergency response chain

To have an effective and appropriate response to a fire, road traffic accident or flood an "emergency response chain" made up of equally important links (stages) must be set in motion. The failure or deficiency of one will undermine the overall response with what may be catastrophic consequences. In a fire, for example, the delayed turnout of a fire engine may result in greater loss of property and/or life, just as not having the right equipment for the circumstances of the incident can also have tragic consequences. What are the various links in the emergency response chain whose organization is so critical to ensure an appropriate response in all circumstances?

The call. The first link is an operator or a call handler this is who calls are received from witnesses and/or victims of a situation which the caller thinks requires firefighters’ attendance. Using the information supplied by the caller, the control staff analyse and process the call. Through a standard procedure, the corresponding operational category and the human and material resources to be deployed (type of appliances, specific equipment, etc.) can be determined. Specialists identify the incident location and including a list of appliances and the number of firefighters required to "go on a shout". The specially trained control room staff will then advise the caller on immediate action to take (e.g., first aid, clearing the area, initial safety measures, etc.) until the firefighters reach the incident scene.

Coordination of appliances/crews and turnout. The ticket received at the fire station specifies the number and type of engines to be dispatched to the incident. "This list of appliances is the backbone of the operation". A crew is formed for each appliance by reference to the ranks and qualifications needed to man it. On-duty crews are then alerted by siren, speaker or optical signal. Crew members stop what they are doing to don their personal protective equipment (PPE) and take their place on the engine they are assigned to. Once fully-crewed, the engine sets off: the crew has a set time ("response time") to reach the incident scene. General regulations usually lay down a standard response time for each type of operation and each type of area (classified by risk level). These practical aspects can vary widely between countries. For example, a turntable ladder turnout requires only a one-man crew in Finland, Italy and Norway, but at least two men in Germany, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Spain, Estonia, France, the Netherlands, Slovakia and Sweden. Similarly, a pump water tender can turn out with a three-man crew in Norway, but requires double that in France and the Netherlands. The regulation response time also differs by country and even by region. These practicalities can affect firefighters’ safety. The presence of a ranking and experienced firefighter to assess the risks and coordinate responders, a sufficient manning level to deal with the incident and a prompt arrival on the scene will all contribute to a successfully-run operation that provides maximum safety for firefighters.

Operation. The third link is the operation itself. On-scene, the incident commander analyses the incident and assesses the operational risks to determine the most appropriate operational strategy and issues orders to the different crew members. There is no room for hesitation or confusion in an emergency: a successful rescue operation requires coordinated actions and effort by the crew. Repeated drills have made each firefighter perfectly versed in what gear and equipment they need and what operational actions to carry out. While no two incidents are ever the same, the firefighters’ operations run to a standard basic form. They follow a pattern and procedures that can be adapted to specific situations without having to improvise. Once first response has been made, casualties evacuated and the fire contained, it remains to make the scene safe either by sanding a road, ensuring that the rubble conceals no smouldering embers that might reignite, or by marking out a safety perimeter.

Return to base. This is the final stage of the operation: the return to the fire station and to prepare appliances, equipment and men for the next call-out. Fire engines are cleaned, checked, replenished (full fuel tank, full pump water tender tank, replenishment of emergency medical unit equipment, etc.). The equipment is checked and repaired or replaced as needed (e.g., fire hoses are unreeled, dried, inspected and rolled up). Soiled personal protective equipment is cleaned. Breathing apparatuses are cleaned and checked. This is also the time for debriefing and feedback from the operation. The crew reviews the conduct of operations to identify problems that need to be addressed for the next call-out. Finally, it is also the time for counselling firefighters who have been involved in a traumatic operation.

In an emergency, each of these links (stages) must be able to swing into instant optimal action. In practice, this means that outside actual operations, each link must keep its component parts at all times in readiness to do its job in all circumstances, including the most critical. For the first link, that means the call acceptance and processing centres must have an updated picture of personnel strength and available appliances at all times. For the second link in the chain – turnout – it means readiness of appliances (e.g., maintenance), equipment (e.g., checking and/or replenishment) and the firefighters themselves (e.g., appropriate training and drilling, and regular physical exercise). Finally, as a successful operation requires theoretical and practical skills from firefighters, they must be trained beforehand (e.g., theoretical training) and their know-how must be regularly maintained (e.g., drills to rehearse the steps of coordinated procedures for specific operations and go through the technical motions).

The emergency response chain broadly outlined above is the lowest common denominator of the structured action of the different European fire services and so obviously may be much more complicated in some circumstances. Control rooms, for example, regularly have to send out several tickets to different fire stations at once to marshal the equipment and human resources needed by a given type of incident. The basic emergency response chain then has added to it the tasks of coordinating responders from different fire stations upstream (i.e., at call processing) and on-scene. Likewise, if fire stations are deemed under-manned for the needs of a particular incident, the emergency response chain is extended by mobilizing retained firefighters from outside these stations and they need to join their fire station by the travel time.

 

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Emergency operations

A typical emergency begins with the discovery and reporting of an incident. The time span of this phase can vary greatly, and the fire service has no control over it. After the report is received, the information is processed and the appropriate units are alerted. Firefighters then don their protective equipment, board the vehicles, and the response phase begins. If the emergency is a fire, the scene is usually referred to as a fireground.

Stages of a fire emergency:

1. Fire discovery.

2. Fire reported.

3. Dispatch.

4. Response.

5. Arrival and setup.

6. Rescue and fire attack.

7. Fire containment and control.

8. Extinguishment.

9. Overhaul and salvage.

10. Investigation.

Upon the arrival at an incident scene, firefighters must handle many tasks. Standard operating procedures enable firefighters to assess the situation quickly, and go into operation. Rescuing occupants is the first priority, followed by confining and extinguishing the fire. In some cases, firefighters must attack the fire in order to attempt rescues.

Engine companies, which are usually first to arrive at an incident scene, deliver water for fire extinguishment. This involves establishing a water supply from a reliable source and attacking the fire with hose lines or other devices.

Truck or ladder companies perform the support functions discussed above, including forcible entry and ventilation. In areas without truck companies, support functions are handled by engine companies or other units such as rescue squads.

Many fire service organizations have standard operating procedures that assign different responsibilities to different units depending on their order of arrival. Units that are expected to arrive at an emergency scene first are called first due units. Responsibilities may need to be reprioritized when one or more occupants are in need of immediate rescue. While often immediate rescue may seem to be the most critical task, attacking the fire might be a better tactic to protect trapped or incapacitated occupants.

The management of all objectives, activities and resources needed to mitigate an emergency successfully is called incident command. This begins when the first arriving officer rapidly gathers information, which is called size-up or scene size-up. Incident command expands as additional units and chief officers arrive. Commanders base their strategy on the best information available at any given time regarding the fire, the building, and the occupants. Commanders also take into consideration the emergency resources and staffing available.

As they receive additional information, commanders may revise their strategies, including calling for additional resources.

Perhaps the most significant of the many decisions that must be made at a fire scene is whether to attack a fire from the interior or defensively from the exterior. Firefighters will often mount an interior attack to protect any remaining building occupants from the advancing fire. However, this often places the firefighters in a dangerous situation. Incident commanders and safety officers must evaluate this risk to make proper attack mode decisions, both initially and on an ongoing basis.

In other cases, due to fire advancement or building conditions, a fire must be attacked from the outside. This is a critical decision, so the more accurate information firefighters have on the fire, the building, its contents, and the occupants, the more likely they are to make sound decisions on the initial fire attack mode and when to transition to another mode.

As operations expand, one or more larger rescue team(s) will normally stand by outside or at a staging area in a high-rise building. These are known as rapid intervention teams or rapid intervention crews. Such teams are a last resort and never a substitute for safe operations or proper building design.

As the fire incident is brought under control, several activities take place. Property that can be saved is salvaged. The structure is overhauled to find and extinguish any remaining hot spots. This may include removing building materials and opening wall cavities. An investigation is likely conducted to determine the fire’s origin and cause. These activities, although dangerous and important, are less time-sensitive. As a result, they are less of a consideration for building and fire protection system designers.

 

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Fire apparatus access

The faster the fire service can respond and set up, the sooner they can begin to mitigate an incident. This should translate into increased safety for firefighters and occupants as well as decreased property loss and indirect business loss. The time taken to set up and sustain firefighting operations can be considerable for high-rises and other complex buildings. This time can be extended when the fire location is not obvious or is remote from the arrival location.

Properly positioning fire apparatus at a fire scene can facilitate search and rescue efforts and effective use of hose streams and ladders. The more room apparatus have to operate, the more options will be available to mitigate the incident. This is especially important when apparatus need to pass each other or reposition during an emergency. This chapter contains considerations to help with access and positioning fire apparatus.

Many buildings are located on public streets that provide good access to at least one side in the case of an emergency. Others are set back from public streets and have private fire lanes. Both enable fire apparatus to approach the building and operate.

In all cases, consider the maximum practicable dimensions for design, since future apparatus purchases or mutual aid apparatus from other jurisdictions may exceed the requirements in a given jurisdiction at any given time.

Codes may contain provisions that allow reduced levels of access when approved fire sprinkler protection is provided. However, as discussed in Chapter 1 of this document, fire is only one of many types of emergencies that may occur and necessitate a fire service response. These provisions should be applied carefully and with a full understanding by all stakeholders of their ramifications.

Several concerns can conflict with the need for fire apparatus access. These concerns include security needs and the desire for green space and walkability. Flexible and innovative thinking, as well as early coordination among stakeholders, can usually overcome these challenges.

 

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