II. Study the words. Make sure you know them. Practice the pronunciation.

THE WORDS OF SCIENCE

I. First thoughts. What do we call the “words of science”? Where do the terms come from?

II. Study the words. Make sure you know them. Practice the pronunciation.

To accustom, to restrict, to adopt, current, force, resistance, to expand, to widen, to denote, to define, compound, strength, quantitative, weight, rate, fatigue, to crack.

III. Read the text and do the tasks following it.

There are many words of long standing which the scientist has been accustomed to use with a meaning that might or might not be the same as its customary one.

Sometimes he restricts the meaning of the word. The physicist adopted the word "current" when he described the changed properties of a wire connected to a voltaic battery as an electric current. In 1827, G. S. Ohm discovered the constancy of the relation between electromotive force and current and gave the ratio the name of "resistance."

Sometimes, a scientist will take an ordinary word and expand or widen its meaning, so that a single thing gives its name to a group or category.

"Salt," for example, is a material that is essential for human beings and animals, and has a long association with social history.

Its name appears in the English language in such a word—as "salary" meaning that the money one earns is meant, in the first turn, for buying what is most necessary for human existence.

The chemist, however, uses the word to denote a class of compounds, which he defines as the products of replacing the hydrogen of an acid, wholly or in part, by a metal or a metallic radicle. Common salt is a compound which comes only to a limited extent within the terms of this definition and only to this limited extent do these two salts mean the same thing.

Sometimes, a scientist will seize a word and force it to do work for which it has no qualifications. Such is the case of a family of related words — "force," "work," "power" and "weight."

In mechanics, force does not mean strength. It seems to say no more than that a force is a push or a pull, and since in physics all things must be measured it acquires, from Newton's Law of Motion, a quantitative sense which makes it the product of mass and acceleration. This, of course, is quite different from anything that the word "force" implies in everyday use.

A weight, one is surprised to learn, is not only the familiar block of metal with a ring on top, but a force. This is logical, because things fall under their own weight with an acceleration (due to gravity), so that the weight of a thing has to be the force with which the earth attracts it.

As to "work," the physicist has decided that a force works, or does work, only when it moves something. I may push and pull in vain at some immovable obstacle, and find that, nevertheless, mathematically I have done no work.

After this it is quite easy to accept the idea that power has come to mean the rate at which work is done; or that metals suffer from "fatigue" or that oils can be made "to crack."

Scientific words do not change their basic meanings in the course of centuries, as many ordinary words do. This singleness of meaning, this constancy in form and function, give to scientific words a character which distinguishes them from other words, but relates them to the symbols of mathematics.

IV. Comprehension Check.

1. Find the English equivalents for the following words and phrases: электрический ток, электродвижущая сила, усталость, расщеплять, вес, ускорение, ограничивать значение, сопротивление, класс соединений, определять (обозначать), количественное значение, неподвижное препятствие.

Make a plan to the text.

Give a summary of the test using the plan.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

I. First thoughts. What sciences study the properties of materials?

IV. Comprehension Check.

Answer the questions:

1. What is the density of a material?

2. What are the units of density? Where low density is needed?

3. What are the densities of water, aluminium and steel?

4. A measure of what properties is stiffness? When stiffness is important?

5. What is Young modulus?

6. What is strength?

7. What is yield strength? Why fracture strength is always greater than yield strength?

8. What is ductility? Give the examples of ductile and brittle materials.

8. What is toughness?

9. What properties of steel are necessary for the manufacturing of: a) springs, b) car body parts, c) bolts and nuts, d) cutting tools?

10. Where is aluminium mostly used because of its light weight?

Translate into English:

1. Плотность измеряется в килограммах на кубический метр.

2. Большинство материалов имеют более высокую плотность, чем вода, и тонут в воде.

3. Плотность материала очень важна, особенно в авиации.

4. Модуль Юнга — отношение приложенной силы к упругой деформации данного материала.

5. Чем более металл жесткий, тем менее он деформируется под нагрузкой.

6. Когда металл растягивают, он сначала течет, то есть пластически деформируется.

7. Свинец, медь, алюминий и золото — самые ковкие металлы.

8. Сопротивление ползучести является очень важным свойством материалов, которые используются в авиационных моторах.

EARLY MINING METHODS

I. First thoughts. What do you know about the early days of coal mining?

IV. Comprehension Check.

Answer the questions:

1. What seams would be worked in the early days of coal­mining?

2. When were tunnels driven from outcrop to the seam?

3. Whom was coal carried by?

4. By what means was the coal got at that time?

5. When were horses employed for winding coal?

6. When did the difficulties of ventilation and drainage arise?

Make a plan to the text.

Notes

1. Hard and fast rules—твердо установленные правила (критерий)

2. principles underlying — принципы, которые легли в ос­нову

3. the system is referred to as — система называется

IV. Comprehension Check.

COAL CUTTING

I. First thoughts. In what way was coal mined in early days?

Notes

1. are of necessity still employed – по необходимости все еще используются

2. ranges from 4 ft 6 in. to 6 ft – колеблется от 4 футов 6 дюймов до 6 футов

3. as the arms advanced into the solid face – по мере того, как режущие органы врезались в забой

 

IV. Comprehension Check.

Answer the questions:

1. By what means were headings driven before the advent of the pneumatic drill?

2. Where are old methods still employed?

3. What must the depth of shot-holes be?

4. What does the disposition of shot-holes depend upon?

5. When were first coal-cutting machines employed?

6. What was the principle of operation of the first heading machines?

Make a plan to the text.

THE VENTILATION OF MINES

I. First thoughts. What is ventilation necessary for? Is it extremely important in our everyday life?

Notes

1. problems of no mean order — немаловажные проблемы (большой важности)

2. it is found necessary — считается необходимым

3. from a variety of causes — по целому ряду причин

4. capable of giving rise to an explosion — способных при­вести к взрыву

IV. Comprehension Check.

ELECTRICITY IN COLLIERIES

I. First thoughts. What is electricity used for? What was life without electricity like?

Notes

1. So far as underground plant is concerned — что касается подземной установки

2. depends primarily upon the extent — зависит, главным образом, от масштаба

3. in terms of units per ton raised — в единицах на тонну добытого угля

IV. Comprehension Check.

Make a plan to the text.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

I. First thoughts. What does geology study? Is there a difference between minerals and rocks?

IV. Comprehension Check.

Translate into English.

1. Имеются две основные группы пород: осадочные и вулканические.

2. Породы классифицируются по процентному содержанию кремния и других элементов.

3. Геологи называют такие формации вулканическими.

4. Вулканические породы состоят из однородного материала.

5. Вулканические породы имеют обычно кристаллическую структуру.

6. Любая классификация пород является более или менее условной.

III. Comprehension check.

Answer the questions.

1. What is the classification of coal based on?

2. Is carbon the only element in coal? (Prove it.)

3. Is lignite intermediate in properties between peat and bituminous coal?

4. What heat value does lignite develop when burnt?

5. What coals are liable to spontaneous combustion?

6. What is the difference between lignite and brown coal?

7. Is bituminous coal high- or low-volatile?

8. Does anthracite contain 90 per cent of carbon?

9. Where are the largest deposits of anthracite found? And what can you say about bituminous coal?

10. What do you know about the utilization of coal?

MINE SUPPORTS

I. First thoughts. What is the function of mine supports?

Notes

1. As soon as the roadway is made – как только проходится выработка;

2. It is not a function of any element – задача любого элемента заключается не в том, чтобы;

3. within the area being supported – на участке, который крепится;

4. when of the right material – сделанные из соответствующего материала.

IV. Comprehension Check.

Answer the questions:

1. When will a redistribution of pre-existing forces develop in the mine?

2. Under what action were the rocks compressed before the removal of the coal?

3. What is the first result of the formation of a free surface?

4. What is the function of any element of mine support?

Make a plan to the text.

MATERIALS USED FOR SUPPORT

I. First thoughts. What kinds of mine supports do you know?

Notes

1. according to the circumstances — согласно обстоятельствам

2. since the 1920's steel has steadily gained ground — начиная с 20-х годов, сталь прочно завоевала ведущее положение

3. These trees usually yield — эти деревья обычно имеют

IV. Comprehension Check.

Answer the questions:

1. What are the chief kinds of materials used for mine supports?

2. Where is stone chiefly used?

3. Is stone imported to the mine?

4. What kinds of wood used for mine support do you know?

3. Translate into Russian:

1. Coal is thought to be mined many centuries ago.

2. Timber is supposed to be once predominant, both on coal faces and on roadways.

3. It is certain to be used in mines.

4. Use the following sentence in all the forms of the Present, Past and Future (Passive Voice):

Mine timber is distinguished into softwood and hardwood.

5. Put questions to all the parts of the following sentence:

Pine and firs yield long, straight and uniform trunks.

COAL PLOUGHS

I. First thoughts. Does mechanization play an important role in our life?

THE WINDING OF COAL

I. First thoughts. Offer several ways of labour-saving in mining industry.

Notes

1. provides a solution to winding in deep shafts – решает вопрос подъема в глубоких шахтах

2. present-day developments – современные достижения

3. perforated to keep down the weight – перфорированные для уменьшения веса

4. great saving in labour – большая экономия рабочей силы

CONVEYERS

I. First thoughts. Is the transport of the mined material from the working face one of the greatest problems in mining industry? Prove your answer.

Notes

1. for even a slightly rising gradient—даже для слегка восстающего градиента

2. whether the coal is delivered uphill or downhill — доставляется ли уголь вверх или вниз по уклону

IV. Comprehension Check.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the main types of face conveyers?

2. Where is the shaker conveyer used?

3. Where is the belt conveyer preferred?

4. Why are conveyers used widely in recent years?

5. Where has an armoured scraper conveyer been developed?

THE WORDS OF SCIENCE

I. First thoughts. What do we call the “words of science”? Where do the terms come from?

II. Study the words. Make sure you know them. Practice the pronunciation.

To accustom, to restrict, to adopt, current, force, resistance, to expand, to widen, to denote, to define, compound, strength, quantitative, weight, rate, fatigue, to crack.