Peculiarities of pilot’s job

UNIT 1

PECULIARITIES OF PILOT’S JOB

I. New vocabulary.

· To assume responsibility for

· To be in charge of /to be responsible for

· To make ultimate decision

· To deal with

· Official designation

· To follow smb’s footsteps

· To cope with the problems

· Benefits/ advantages/ positive sides

· Drawbacks/ disadvantages/ negative sides

· Up-to-date

· To encourage

· To be familiar with

· To be aware of

· To be good at

· To apply skills and knowledge

· Airmanship

· To steer the aircraft

· Responsibility rests with

· To meet demands/ requirements

· Advanced/ state-of-art/enhanced/sophisticated equipment

· Indispensable

· To be equipped with/to be fitted with

· To adhere to

· To ensure safety

· To master

· To be obliged to

· Pilot’s powers

· To comply with

· To take into account

· To assess situation/ to evaluate the situation

· To estimate the problem

· To bear one’s responsibility for

· To encompass

· To convey aircraft to another crew

· To place aircraft under security

· To verify information

· Jet-lag

· Fatigue

· To eliminate/ to exclude

· Flare

· To be at smb’s disposal

· Aircraft profile

· Paramount importance

II. Replace the words and word combinations with their synonyms.

To know, to be responsible for, to use skills, enhanced, to follow, official position, positive sides, negative sides, demands, to satisfy demands, to include, tiredness, to exclude, to check, to bear responsibility, to solve problems, flying skills, to provide safety, great importance, to work with, modern, to be equipped with, to make final decision, to operate the plane.

 

III. Use the necessary preposition.

1. to be responsible………..

2. to be good ………..……..

3. to be ……….charge ……

4. to be aware……………...

5. to cope..…..the problems

6. to be familiar…………….

7. to deal……………………

8. to take ……….….account

9. to follow …...the footsteps

10. to be obliged……………..

11. to bear responsibility……..

12. to be fitted ……………….

13. to place the aircraft……….security

14. responsibility rests…………..pilots

 

IV. Make up sentences with the given phrases.

· To assume responsibility/ indispensable

· Official designation/ to follow one’s footsteps

· To be familiar with/ to estimate the problem

· To be aware of/ to cope with the problem

· Advanced equipment/ to encompass

· To master/ to ensure safety

· To meet requirements/ airmanship

· To assess the situation/ to adhere to

· Jet lag/ to exclude

· Pilot’s powers/ to be obliged to

· To be of paramount importance/ to be at smb’s disposal

 

V. Answer the questions. Use the underlined phrase in your answer.

1. What is a first officer in charge of?

2. How is it possible to eliminate the problem with the jet-lag?

3. What documents do you have to adhere to?

4. Does the captain comply with first officer’s instructions if the latter is pilot flying?

5. What enhanced and advanced systems are there in your cockpit?

6. Who assumes responsibility for evacuation of the passengers?

7. How much time do the pilots have for evaluating the depressurization problem?

8. What requirements do the pilots have to meet?

9. Why is it necessary for pilot to master English?

10. Why do pilots have to be aware of the weather forecast?

11. What is of paramount importance for pilots in case of hijacking?

12. Can the first officer make a final decision if he is pilot flying?

 

VII. Read the text and discuss it.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF A PILOT

 

   Up-to-date aircraft are operated by two pilots that create a crew. Despite subordination (captain- first officer) they are interdependent and both are of paramount importance for the safe outcome of the flight. One of them flies the aircraft and another handles communications and collision avoidance. This provides a sort of human redundancy as this team work allows them to cross check each other and thus minimize human factor mistakes.

Flight crew is responsible for:

· ensuring the safety of all crew members and passengers on board

· mastering flight technique and aircraft operation to complete safe flight

· readiness of the aircraft for the flight and its correct loading

· correct assessing meteorological and aeronautical information as per take off, landing or during the flight

 Captain bears responsibility for:

- all crew members preparation for the flight

- correspondence of passengers number on the board and number in transportation documents

- safety outcome of the flight, not depending whether he is pilot-flying or not

- following assigned flight plan and observance of minimum heights

- in time filling of log book

First officer submits to the captain. His responsibilities encompass participation in flight operation to be ready to assume responsibility at any moment under captain’s order or in case captain is unable to execute his functions. Thus first officer is empowered

- to operate the aircraft on all stages of the flight

- to make ultimate decisions as per the flight if he is PF

- to adopt pilot in command’s power in case of his incapacitation

- to fill documentation

 

Before the flight

   Pilots typically report for work an hour before departure in order to meet with other crew members on pre-flight briefing which is conducted by the captain. Prior to briefing the captain confers with forecasters, obtains and verifies meteorological information related to the flight.

On the briefing the captain selects alternative aerodromes, ultimately defines the necessary amount of fuel and discusses with other crew members the flight peculiarities. First officer is in charge of calculation of take-off and landing characteristics, loading and centering.

Then crew proceeds to the aircraft and takes up other duties. Firstly first officer and following him the captain perform visual check of the plane for determining any dents, scratches, cut tires, consequences of maintenance work, for ensuring that outer surfaces are free from any deposits that may affect aircraft performance, that cargo is correctly loaded and fixed. First officer checks and reports to the captain on closing of cargo hatches and fillers. 

The first officer ensures that all radio and navigational equipment is operative, that fuel amount on the board equals to the calculated one, that proper type of fuel is used and also controls correct fuel distribution. Then he reports to the captain. So the captain has to be ensured that the aircraft is technically suitable, equipment and instruments are operative except the ones that are allowed by MEL.

Then all necessary information should be inserted into FMS.

 

In flight.

Pilots operate the flight in accordance with the Flight Plan. On modern aircraft pilots share their duties in accordance with being pilot-flying and pilot-non-flying. They steer the aircraft with assistance of autopilot and the flight management computer. PF operates the aircraft, PNF conducts communication with ATC, monitors and assesses the work of different systems, every 30 minutes checks the fuel supply which has to be efficient for reaching the destination. PNF duly reports to PF on all deviations and failures of airplane equipment. Pilots have to interact closely with the cabin crew to ensure friendly and effective passengers’ service.

Most modern aircrafts have advanced computer systems that alert the pilot about any changes in weather or deviation from a scheduled flight

After the flight.

When on the ground first officer visually inspects the aircraft, fills the flight task and the captain certifies it with his signature. First officer arranges all manuals, maps and charts for another crew or returns them to Flight Dispatch Department. Captain conveys the aircraft to another crew or engineering personnel or properly parks and seals it and then places it under security.

 

Navigational equipment.

Up- to- date aircraft possess a glass cockpit which is fitted with different navigational equipment and devices.

 

   A GLASS COCKPIT is a cockpit with electronic instrument displays. While on conventional aircraft there were mechanic gauges for displaying information, glass cockpits have electronic displays which are monitored by FMS. It simplifies the work of the pilots, allows to focus only on necessary information. This enhanced technology eliminates the necessity of flight engineer and navigator.

 

   One more innovation that reduces workload on the crew is A HEAD-UP DISPLAY. It is transparent display on the glass of the cockpit that depicts necessary information which allows pilots to keep the heads up and not to be distracted by looking at the instruments.

← Copilot's HUD of a C-130J

A FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(FMS) is an advanced computer system that performs a great variety of in-flight tasks. It minimizes the workload on the flight crew and excludes the necessity to carry flight engineers or navigators. A primary function of it is in-flight management of the flight plan. The FMS makes use of different sensors to identify the position of the aircraft. The FMS guides the aircraft along the flight plan. The navigational data inserted into the FMS is usually updated every 28 hours. These include

√ Waypoints

√ Airways

√ Radio navigational aids including DME, VOR and NDB

√ Airports

√ Runways

√ Standard Instrument Departure (SID)

√ Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

√ Holding patterns

 

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance from aircraft to a land-based transponder by sending and receiving special impulses. The ground stations are typically co-located with VORs.

So, the DME system is composed of transmitter/receiver in the aircraft and a receiver/transmitter on the ground. They measure the distance in miles from aircraft to the RW threshold. It checks the distances from five different DME simultaneously in order to determine one position every 10 seconds.

 

 

VOR - omnidirectional radio range, is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. A VOR ground station broadcasts a signal including the station's identifier, voice (if equipped), and navigation signal. The identifier is morse code. The voice signal is usually station name, in-flight recorded advisories, or live flight service broadcasts. The navigation signal allows the airborne receiving equipment to determine a direction to the VOR station.

GPS- Global Positioning System, precise navigation system using signals received from a fleet of low-orbiting satellites, allows pilots to determine their position. The aircraft unit finds the signals from the two nearest satellites and notifies the crew about their latitude and longitude.

 

Aircraft Description.

 One of the most sophisticated aircraft is A 320 at present time.

The A320 was the first civil airliner to include a full digital fly-by-wire flight control system, system which allows pilots to act as operators- to steer the aircraft by operating the computerized system.

 

The A320's flight deck is equipped with:

Ø Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) which supplies the flight crew with complete range of information about all the systems of the aircraft. It consists of

- upper ECAM display (depicts engine parameters and issues warnings in case of engine malfunctions)

- low ECAM display ( depicts conditions of aircraft systems and gives advice)

Ø FMGS which is displayed by

- Primary Flight Display which contains

- Vertical Speed Indicator that measures rate of ascending or descending.

- Attitude Indicator that gives pilots information about the aircraft’s pitch and roll characteristics and the orientation of the aircraft with respect to the horizon.

- Airspeed Indicator that displays the speed of the aircraft in knots.

- Altitude Indicator that displays the aircraft’s altitude above the sea level.

- Heading Display that shows the pilot the magnetic heading of the aircraft.

- Navigation display (depicts flight route, control points, constrains)

Ø Automatic Directional Finding (ADF) is an onboard receiving instrument, with a needle that continuously indicates bearing to a selected radio beacon on the ground or commercial broadcast station.

Ø Autopilot.

 

Crash of A-320 in Sochi.

On the 3d of May 2006, an Armavia Airbus A320 plunged into the Black Sea en route from Yerevan to Sochi. Investigation commission found out that the aircraft was in good technological condition, engines were running smoothly, there were not any system malfunctions and it was fueled enough for safe completion of the flight.

Being tracked by Sochi controller pilots were informed that the weather at the airport was above minima and they were cleared for descent to 600 meters, before entering the turn to the final approach. Whilst performing the turn, the runway extended centerline was overshot. After eliminating the deviation, the crew started descending the aircraft along the glide slope, following the approach pattern. In 30 seconds the controller advised crew about deteriorating meteorological situation (cloud ceiling 100 meters) and instructed them to cease their descent, abandon the landing attempt, and carry out a right turn and climb 600 meters. In some seconds the aircraft crashed. All 105 passengers and 8 crew on board perished.

It was revealed that the crew didn’t use standard procedure for going around. The crash was caused by inadequate control inputs of the Captain following a go-around after the first attempted approach. Contributing factors to the accident were the lack of necessary monitoring of the aircraft descent parameters by the First Officer, and the improper reaction of the crew to the subsequent GPWS warning.

 According to assessed data pre-flight crew rest was more than 24 hours. Otherwise cockpit voice recorder indicates of pilots sleepy condition that could affect the outcome of the flight. And the flight was performed at night time when probability of committing mistake is rather high.

  

 

UNIT 2

PECULIARITIES OF ATC’S JOB

I. New vocabulary.

· Inalienable part

· To be in charge of/ to be responsible for

· To be obliged to

· To deal with

· To bear responsibility for/ to assume responsibility for

· To follow smb’s footsteps

· Handover

· To be equipped with/ to be fitted with

· To substitute

· To eliminate the problem

· Separation infringement

· State-of-art/advanced/sophisticated/ enhanced equipment

· To be at smb’s disposal

· Level-headed

· To distinguish

· Designation

· To advise/inform/notice/notify

· To predetermine

· To designate

· To assign

· To take into account

· To spot

· To collaborate

· To undertake measures

· To ensure safety/ to enhance safety

· Benefits/advantages/positive sides

· Drawbacks/ disadvantages/negative sides

· In a row

· To meet requirements /to meet demands

· To work out

· To drill

· To enhance knowledge

· To adhere to rules

· To apply skills and knowledge

· To cope with the problems

· Paramount importance

· To follow smb’s footsteps

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLER

ATC service is an inalienable part of air traffic. It provides the users with complete range of air navigation services. Controllers bear responsibility for providing flights safety during servicing air traffic. They are in charge of:

§ listening to operational frequency of their sector and keeping radio communication with the traffic

§ listening to emergency frequency

§ identification of the traffic

§ preventing collisions between the aircraft

§ coordinating planes movements- assigning them speed, heading, flight path, flight conditions in holding pattern etc.

§ keeping the aircraft safely separated from each other on all phases of the flight, taking into account air space classification, flight rules according to which flight is performed and type of the aircraft

§ accepting and handover the aircraft from/to adjacent sector

§ relaying controller’s instructions, clearances and recommendations to the pilots concerning safety of flights

§ controlling of pilots’ flight plans following

§ supplying the crew with meteorological information if they are in need

§ analyzing, revealing and solving conflict situations with the aim of preventing minimum separation infringement

§ assisting the crews in emergency situations

Thus, the controllers assume responsibility for the lives of all people who are in the air in their areas.

Depending on the area where controller works we distinguish different types of controllers:

Ground controllers

They

- give clearances to start-up, run-up engines

-issue taxiing direction

-inform pilots about TW and RW conditions, current works and meteorological conditions at the airport

-designate a parking stand number for arriving aircraft

-guide pilots in parking area, give clearance for holding position before take off

-provide safe moving of the aircraft in maneuvering area

Tower controllers

They 

- clear the crew for occupying the RW

- monitor RW occupying, crossing and vacating by ground personnel

- designate RW number for landing and take off

- issue clearance for take off and landing

- instruct pilots as for initial climb

- inform pilots about RW conditions, birds activity and meteorological conditions at the airport

-provide safe separation between departing and arriving aircraft

- inform airport services about readiness and emergency/alarm signal

 

Approach controllers

They

- monitor and control air traffic in the area restricted by altitudes peculiar for each airport

-issue instructions to aircraft who are intending to land at the airport

 (This involves vectoring aircraft in a safe, orderly, and expeditious manner and, if needed, stacking the aircraft at different holding altitudes)

- prioritize sequence of approach for landing

- provide necessary separation between the aircraft

 

ACCs

They

- provide safe passage of traffic on high flight levels

- constantly monitor air space situation on the screen

- coordinate planes movements assigning them FLs, routes, speed, heading

- warn crews about possible conflict situations

- advise avoiding actions due to another traffic or weather conditions

- offer weather information if required

ATC’s facilities

Some years ago all control centers in Ukraine were equipped with automated system which substituted a lot of controller’s functions. On these monitors ATC can observe aircraft plot, its call sign, its heading, and speed and flight level. It eliminates necessity to keep this information in mind. This system provides controllers with such information as flight plans, delays, flight plans’ conflict, and weather conditions at the airports. There are two warning functions of this system: function of prediction which helps controller to maintain necessary separation between the planes and warns ATC in case of infringement of this separation 120 seconds in advance; function of violation which goes off in case of violation of minimum separation.

Thus, state-of-art advanced and sophisticated equipment which is at controllers disposal is aimed to enhance the safety in the air and on the ground.

 

Pre-shift preparation

ATCs work in shift pattern. Each controller’s shift is proceeded by pre-shift briefing where meteorologists notify the team about weather conditions for different sectors of control, issue SIGMET, and inform about met conditions at own airport and the nearest airports.

Then military officers take the floor. They remind about prohibited areas, advise about restricted areas, state flights, training military flights. For low arrears they note explosive works and applications of small-engine aviation. Following it a technician reports on technical condition of the operative system, on any changes and malfunctions.

  Then supervisor of lower area informs the audience about RW, apron, TW, stand conditions, gives instructions to his team and assigns controllers to different sector positions. Then upper area supervisor takes the word and also informs the team about work loading in his sector, states if there are any traffic congestions and gives instructions to his team and it is for him to assign controllers to their positions in sectors.

ATC’s career

The career in air traffic control service starts with operational controller who may have ratings for different control sectors. Then career is predetermined by experience and level of proficiency. If gained knowledge and skills allow operational controller may become a senior controller or a supervisor.

If controller has a calling for this profession and he is good at documents, regulations and recommendations he may obtain the designation of Simulator Training Instructor.

 

Supervisor

Supervisor bears responsibility for all controllers in his team, for their actions, so he has to be an excellent psychologist to select members for his team as he has to be sure in them as in himself. He has to be familiar with all leading documents, to be highly experienced as an operational controller.

The Supervisor is responsible for

- his team controllers to ensure safety in their sector of control

- coordinating the work with aviation authorities and other services

- monitoring controller’s actions in case of emergency

- following all necessary working documents

- organizing professional training for his controllers and checking their knowledge

- undertaking preventive measures in case of appearance of complicated situations

X. Agree or disagree.

· ATCs will be substituted by automated systems in the future.

· Native crews are easier to deal with than foreign ones.

Collision over Germany

  In 2002 Russian Tu154 of Bashkirian airline was carrying children from Russia to Spanish resort in Barcelona for vacation. The same day cargo B757 of DHL with two crew members on the board was directing from Bahrain to Brussels. Both aircraft collided with each other at 35 000feet over southern boarder of Germany with Switzerland. Debris was scattered over 20miles radius. Nobody survived. 71 people on both planes perished.

Both aircraft were equipped with TCAS which went off 45 seconds before the collision. It instructed Tu154 to rise and B757 to descend. Swiss controller gave instruction to Tupolev to descend as well. And it started descent.

The thing is it was night time and there was only one controller in the control center and he was working with two radio stations simultaneously. The contributing factor was that ground avoiding collision system was switched off for maintenance that time. ATC was busy with another traffic on another frequency and missed near miss. A minute before impact he spotted it and tried to prevent it by giving Tupolev command to descend. By the way the controllers mislead Russian crew by giving them wrong information about conflicting traffic. (He stated that conflicting traffic was on the right, while in fact it was on the left) Russian crew decided that there was one more aircraft which they were ignorant about and followed ATC’s instruction.

So both aircraft left FL 360, descended about 200 meters and collided on FL 354. During last seconds pilots tried to avoid each other but in vain. Boeing stabilizer hit Tupolev’s fuselage and caused its explosion in the air. Crippled B757 with a part of stabilizer torn apart lost control and crashed as well.

 

UNIT 3

WEATHER

I. New vocabulary.

· Crucial importance/ paramount importance

· Hazardous/ dangerous weather conditions

· Marginal weather conditions

· Adverse weather conditions

· To postpone the flight/to suspend the flight

· To circumnavigate

· To be of great advantage/ disadvantage

· To deteriorate / to impair

· The decision rests with the pilot

· Runway visual range

· To present/ pose danger for

· To melt

· To alert/ to warn

· To resist the strike

· To be vulnerable

· Humidity

· To affect/ influence on

· To encounter

· To be aware of

· Sliding off the RW

· Skidding of the RW

· Overrunning

· Blustery

· Violent wind

· Sleet

· Slush

· Ascending air currents/ air flow

· Descending air current / air flow

· Airport comes into a standstill

· Wind velocity

· To break out

· To pay particular attention to

· To take into account

· To pose obvious danger to

· Ball lightning

· Bolt of lightning

· Sheet lightning

· A fog clears / lets up / lifts.

· Volcano eruption

 

WEATHER

Weather is of paramount importance for aviation. It influences every flight greatly because there is direct connection between weather and safety of flight. Marginal weather may cause postponing or canceling the flight, diversion to another airport, circumnavigation of areas with bad weather conditions, losing orientation in unfamiliar airport. Rough weather may also lead to communication problems because of noise static and poor readability. That’s why before each flight the pilots receive meteorological information for the airport of departure, for the airport of destination and on the route.

For example, wind greatly affects the flight. A headwind will obviously suspend the arrival of flights and is to be avoided on the route if it is possible but it is of an advantage while landing and take off as it increases lift and reduces landing distance. A tailwind on the other hand, can be of great advantage on the route as it increases the ground speed and results in a reduction of fuel consumption. Severe cross wind can pose great risk while landing as the plane may slide off or skid of the RW. That’s why wind direction and strength are taken into account before planning the flight.

The most hazardous weather phenomena are:

· CB clouds

· Lightning

· Hail

· Wind shear

· Severe turbulence

· Icing

· Fog

· Shower rain

· Snow rain

· Squall

· Blizzard

· Drizzle

· Volcanic ash

 

  CB clouds create the greatest threat for the safety of the flight due to ascending and descending air flows, as a result severe turbulence. Their tops can reach 10 000-12 000 meters. These areas can pose another risk - lightning and hail and another severe precipitation. 

Lightning strike can cause

- electrical system failure on the aircraft

- communication failure

- ignition and malfunction of any another system that in its turn can result in loss of control

- may blind the pilot

Hail can also damage the fuselage skin or windshield that can lead to depressurization or any other unforeseen consequences. But the most significant influence on the plane have air currents within CB clouds area, they can easily disable the aircraft by throwing it up and down. Lost the speed and been unable to be supported in the air the plane will sure to plunge down.

That’s why it is strictly prohibited to enter CB clouds areas. It is allowed to circumnavigate them under the cloud base if the aircraft can maintain altitude not less than 200 meters above the ground and not less than 600 meters above mountainous area while vertical separation between the plane and the cloud base has to be also 200meters. The distance between clouds top and the aircraft has to be not less than 500 meters. Thunderstorms cells have to be avoided with the distance of 15 kilometers.

 

Wind shear is a rapid change of wind speed or direction over a short distance horizontally or vertically. It can occur at any height, but is far more dangerous when encountered close to the ground as it can result in loss of controllability of the aircraft because during approach phase the plane reduces its speed and becomes more vulnerable to the influence of outside factors. Encountered in the air it can lead to stall, overshooting or touching down before landing zone.

Wind shears are usually common due to thunderstorms (they appear under thunderstorms cells because of downdrafts and updrafts) or jet streams.

As wind shear is a rapid change of wind so it is rather complicated to foresee it for meteorologists. In the majority of cases the ATCs and meteor centers obtain report about wind shear from the previous plane. Sophisticated aircraft are equipped with wind shear alerting system which warns the crew about the danger with a woman’s voice.

 

  Microburst is a localized hazardous wind shear condition. It is a narrow downdraft of very high speed wind. When the downdraft approaches the surface of the ground, the wind flows outward from the core in all directions. Encountering microburst the aircraft will pitch up and climb and then rapidly pitch down and descend. These conditions can exceed the performance capability of some aircraft. For this reason it is imperative to avoid microburst.

 

Turbulence is a situation when the smooth flow of air is disturbed by something in its path on the ground or by rising or descending air. It affects the plane so the abrupt jolts and bumps of the fuselage are felt. Turbulence can occur in mountainous area, while entering the clouds, in the zone of atmospheric fronts, in the zones of jet streams or due to air friction close to the ground because of differences in surface and air temperatures.

Turbulence can be light, moderate and severe. In severe turbulence an aircraft is tossed greatly: it can lose or gain altitude and attitude, experience structural damages and sometimes become out of control.

It’s recommended for the pilots to avoid the turbulence by changing the altitudes and it is forbidden to land under severe turbulence.

 

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any visual cues such as clouds. It is impossible to note CAT with a naked eye because it is invisible and it is very complicated to identify it with conventional radar. The most susceptible altitudes for CAT are between 7000 and 12000 meters, in the regions where jet streams pass. At lower altitudes it may also occur near mountain ranges. Thin cirrus cloud can also indicate high probability of CAT.

 

  Jet stream is a fast flowing air current moving from west to east in the upper portion of the troposphere. The main jet streams are located near the tropopause, the transition between the troposphere (where temperature decreases with altitude) and the stratosphere (where temperature increases with altitude).

Jet streams may be of great advantage for aviation. Commercial use of the jet stream started in 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu. It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours. It also saved the fuel.

 

 Icing is build up of ice on the surfaces of aircraft which increases the weight of the plane, makes it difficult to climb and maintain altitudes and can lead to dangerous and even fatal results:

 -increased weight of the plane can cause worsening of aerodynamic characteristics of the plane

- frozen contaminants cause critical control surfaces to be rough and greatly degrading the ability of the wing to generate lift and increasing drag

- movable controls may be jammed

- engines propellers may be crippled and cause unbalanced vibration (due to injection of ice)

- engine stoppage (due to icing up of carburetor, cowling and intakes)

- flame outs may take place

- appearing of ice on internal or external windscreen can impair visibility

- sometimes landing gear extending may be affected

- antennas can vibrate so severely that can easily break

- different sensors can be covered with ice and transfer incorrect data to the cockpit

- excessive fuel consumption

 The combination of all these factors can lead to stall and even crash of the aircraft.

 In order to prevent icing de-icing procedure takes place on the ground. De-icing is a procedure that can be accomplished by mechanical methods (scraping, pushing); with the application of heat; by spraying the plane with liquid chemicals designed to lower the freezing point of water; or by a combination of these different techniques.

Anti-icing system is used in the flight. Leading edges of the wing, windscreen, engine clawing are heated to prevent built up of ice while flying in extremely low temperatures.

  Fog is a phenomenon caused by water droplets suspended in the air that decreases visibility. Fog is dangerous when the aircraft approaches to landing as it reduces visibility and aircraft flying in VFR will experience hazardous situations when there is no visual contact with the ground.

Reduced visibility because of fog may result in:

- restrictions on movements in an airport, reduced capacity (because of procedural increased separation between aircraft take-offs and landings in order to maintain safety)

- RW incursion

- disorientation (especially in unfamiliar airport) that in its turn can cause near collision

Thick fog creates obvious hazards for landing. Nowadays the responsibility rests with the pilots- they decide themselves to perform landing or not, taking into account airport category, aircraft minima, and crew minima.

There are three airport categories:

1. ILS CATEGORY I - An ILS approach procedure which allows to perform landing with decision height not lower than 60m and a visibility not less than 800m or a runway visual range not less than 550m.

2. ILS CATEGORY II (Special authorization required) - An ILS approach procedure which provides for an approach to a decision height lower than 60m but not lower than 30m and a runway visual range not less than 350m.

3. ILS CATEGORY III (Special authorization required) -

a. IIIA - an ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with either a decision height lower than 30m or with no decision height and with a runway visual range of not less than 200m.

b. IIIB - an ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with either a decision height lower than 15m or with no decision height and with a runway visual range of less than 200m but not less than 50m.

c. IIIC - An ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations.

   Landing is the most complicated phase of flight, that’s why a great attention is paid to RW condition. It may be: dry, wet and dump, with water patches, flooded, slippery, covered with slush, covered with rime or frost/ ice, covered with compacted snow, covered with ruts and ridges

 

Volcano eruption

Erupted volcanic ash reaches high altitudes and easily is spread by winds. It can cause significant threat for aircraft over a large territory of the planet.

Volcanic pieces (rock particles) get into the engine, melt as there is temperature more than 1000 C, stick to the blades and compressor and result in engine flame out or cutting off or fooling of the engines temperature sensors. Volcanic ash is charged so it will negatively affect communication. Air speed indicators will be clogged and will fail to operate. Safety of the aircraft flying through volcanic ash cloud is endangered as volcanic parts floating in the air reduce visibility, can cause damage of the fuselage, lights and movable surfaces.

 

XVII. Grammar.

I. Put the verbs in appropriate form.(Present Simple)

1. Person ……………..(to experience) dehydration during the flight.

2. If the weather ……………………..(not to deteriorate) we’ll depart in accordance with the slot.

3. I think the crew ………………………(not to be aware) of coming front.

4. Severe cross wind ………………….(to jeopardize) landing.

5. Four snow ploughs ………………(to clean) the apron from the snow for 20 minutes.

6. Where the headquarters of your airline …………………..(to be located)?

7. We suppose this air company ………………..(to violate) the rules of pre-flight rest of the crew.

8. What measures ……………….you (to undertake) when you see squawk 7500?

9. We ……………..(to follow) ICAO documents.

10. It………………..(to take) 50 minutes to fly from Donetsk to Kiev.

11. How much time ………………………it (to take) to fly from Dnepropetrovsk to Kiev?

12. ATC ……………….(to issue) clearance and pilots………………(to follow) them.

13. Severe precipitation…………………..(to reduce) visibility.

14. Every aircraft ………………(to have) to meet international requirements.

15. Birds on the RW…………….(to pose) threat to smooth running of the engine. Passengers ……………….(to claim) to get refund.

16. The captain………………(to need) to know if Odessa airport …………(to be) ready to accept them.

17. In majority of cases stress and work pressure …………..(to cause) human mistakes.

18. If you …………………(not to pass) medical or English exams, you will be deprived of your licence.

19. The crew………………..(not to require) priority for landing.

 

II. Translate into English.

1. Аэробус 380 выполняет дальнемагистральные полеты.

2. Наша полоса не позволяет принимать такие самолеты.

3. Пассажиры знают о причинах задержки рейса?

4. Рейс на Афины вылетает в 7 ровно.

5. Кто несет ответственность за загрузку бортового питания?

6. Вы знакомы с процедурами руления?

7. Сдвиг ветра возникает на любой высоте, но представляет опасность только при взлете и посадке.

8. Руководство авиакомпаний редко возмещают пассажирам убытки за отмененный рейс.

9. Мы не уверенны, что можем выдерживать заданный эшелон.

10. Туман обычно рассеивается к обеду, и мы возобновляем полеты.

11. В днепропетровском аэропорту нет большой пропускной способности.

12. Яркая вспышка молнии вблизи самолета приводит к ослеплению экипажа на некоторое время.

13. Я не вижу улучшения погоды.

14. По каким направлениям летает ваша компания?

15. Неблагоприятные погодные условия значительно усложняют визуальные полеты.

16. Ваш самолет оборудован GPS?

17. В случае отказа всех двигателей экипаж начинает планирование.

18. Когда вылетают рейсы на Борисполь сегодня?

19. У нас нет недостатка в техническом персонале.

20. Диспетчер не разрешает занятие полосы, если там идет уборка снега.

 

Pullkovo airline crash

On the 22d of August in 2005 Tu-154 of Pullkovo airlines was executing flight from the Russian resort Anapa to Saint Petersburg. The aircraft was crossing Ukrainian territory and over the eastern part of it encountered severe thunderstorm. The crew was reported about it by controller, the previous traffic of Turkish Airlines diverted to departure airport due to this cell. But the flight of Tu-154 requested from ATC to climb FL390(approximately 119000meters), as the captain made up his mind to overfly this activity above. There were a number of contributing factors that affected the captain:the plane was not refueled in Anapa and the pilots feared short of fuel because of diversion from the route and the crew was pressed financially by the air company for extra fee it would have to pay in case of landing at the alternative.

The things went wrong when the pilots climbed 12100meters instead of 11900 cleared by controller. It was a fateful decision as at such extremely high altitude the plane lost speed, pitch angle reached 45 degrees and the aircraft entered a deep stall. The flight crew couldn’t recover the situation. The plane entered a spin with a high angle of attack and was falling sliding from one wing to another like a leaf from the tree. The pilots didn’t even realize the situation at once. But when they did, they tried to save the aircraft desperately but in vain. The plane plunged to the ground, broke apart and burst into flames about 40 kilometers north of Donetsk. All passengers and crew perished in this accident.

 

UNIT 4

COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS

I. New vocabulary.

· To misunderstand

· To misinterpret

· To mishear

· Radio malfunction

· Communication breakdown

· Code switching

· Multiple communication

· Ambiguous words

· To transmit blind

· Fluency of speech

· Plain English

· Disbelief

· Strobe lightning

· Overanticipation

· To miss

· Complicated instructions

· Runway incursion

· Personal friction/ rank barrier

· To establish communication

· To resume communication

· To relay a message

· Simultaneous transmitting

· Phraseology deviation

· Adherence

· To pronounce clearly and distinctly

· Even rate of speech

· To maintain assigned level

· Affected aircraft

· To distract

 

COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS

    Radio communication is considered to be failed if during 5 minutes the crew or the ATC unit doesn’t answer the repeated calls through all available radio communication channels.

Communication problems

can be caused by a number of reasons

     There are two types of communication failure- one-way communication failure and two-way communication failure.

One-way communication failure is a situation when either pilot or controller is unable to transmit or receive a message.

Two-way communication failure is a situation when both pilot and controller are unable to transmit and receive a message.

    In the event of one-way communications (i.e. aircraft can receive only), the controller may request the aircraft to make identifying turns, flash its navigational lights, transmit codes or IDENT signals on the transponder, rock its wings, etc, to acknowledge clearances or instructions

     When it is known that two-way communication failure has occurred, ATC shall maintain separation between the aircraft having the communication failure and the other aircraft based on the assumption that the aircraft will operate in accordance with VMC or IMC.

     In the event of two-way radio communication failure the pilot-in-command shall 1) use all available facilities, take measures to re-establish communication with the ATC directly or by means of other aircraft. In such cases, if necessary, the emergency frequency 121.5 MHZ may be used.

2) Transmit position reports and intentions, assuming the aircraft transmitter is operating, and prefixing all transmissions with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”.

3) Turn on landing lights, beacons, and strobe lighting.

Adherence to the appropriate RCF emergency procedures depends on the flight conditions - VMC or IMC.

In VMC:

  Pilots shall

· set transponder to Code 7600

· continue to fly in visual meteorological conditions

·  land at the nearest suitable aerodrome

· report the arrival by the most expeditious means to the appropriate air traffic control unit.

In IMC

1) Crew has to set squawk 7600, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 minutes following the aircraft’s failure, to report its position over a compulsory reporting point and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed flight plan;

 2) In the event of radio communication failure directly after take-off, the pilot-in-command shall carry out approach according to the established pattern and land at the departure aerodrome.

 3) If it is impossible to land at the departure aerodrome after take-off (due to meteorological conditions or if the aircraft mass exceeds the landing mass and fuel jettison is impossible etc.), the pilot-in-command has the right:

 a) to proceed to the destination aerodrome according to flight plan. Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated navigation aid or fix; and land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the estimated time of arrival

 b) to proceed to the alternate aerodrome at the flight level assigned by the ATS unit or at proximate lower flight level (in accordance with vertical separation rules), but not below minimum safe flight level.

 ATC will consider aircraft experiencing communication failure if the expected report is missing within 5 minutes. 

      Firstly it is necessary to call the aircraft on definite frequencies (on current and previous sector frequencies) and identify whether it is one-way communication failure or two-way communication failure.

     If an identified aircraft experiences a radio failure the radar controller shall instruct the aircraft to make a turn(s) or set another transponder code. If movement of the plane or another code indicates that the aircraft receiver is operating the controller shall continue to pass instructions blind or try to resume normal radar service.

    After attempts to establish normal two-way radio communication have failed, controllers are to carry out the following standard radio failure procedures:

· Maintain separation between the radio failure aircraft and other known traffic;

· When operating in RVSM airspace, provide a minimum vertical separation of 2000 feet between the radio failure aircraft and any other aircraft;

· Give pertinent information about the movements of the radio failure aircraft to other aircraft in the presumed vicinity;

· Ask aircraft in the presumed vicinity to establish communication with the radio failure aircraft and relay messages;

· Use all means possible to monitor the aircraft’s progress;

· Transmit, on the appropriate frequencies: level, route and EAT (or ETA) to which the radio failure aircraft is assumed to be adhering; the weather conditions at the destination aerodrome, a suitable alternate and, if practicable, in areas suitable for a descent through cloud.

· When, in consultation with the operator, instructions to divert have been transmitted to the radio failure aircraft, inform the alternate aerodrome and request that they attempt to establish communication;

· During flight without radio communication at night, the crew shall, if possible, indicate aircraft position by periodical switching on of onboard landing lights or by onboard lights flashing.

· In order to avoid miscommunication both pilots and controllers have to

· Pronounce each word clearly and distinctly

· Maintain an even rate of speech (not exceeding — typically — 100 words per minute)

· Make a slight pause preceding and following numerals; this makes them easier to understand

· Maintain the speaking volume at a constant level

· Be familiar with microphone-operating techniques (particularly in maintaining a constant distance from the microphone)

· Usage of standard phraseology (nonstandard phraseology or the omission of key words may change completely the meaning of the intended message, resulting in potential conflicts)

The most significant example is the North American phrase “Taxi into position and hold.” It has the same meaning as the ICAO phrase “Line up and wait,” whereas the ICAO phrase “Taxi to holding position” is a clearance to taxi to and hold at a point clear of the runway. Always read back the necessary clearances:

√ ATC route clearances

√ Clearances and instructions to enter, land, take off, hold short of, cross or backtrack on RW

√ Runway in use

√ Altimeter setting

√ ATC transponder code

√ Altitude or flight level instructions

√ Heading and speed instructions

√ Transition levels

Miscommunication can cause RW incursion.

   Runway incursion is called "Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off of aircraft".

We can speak about typical scenarios of RW incursion

· Controller related situation: not having visual contact with the aircraft due to poor visibility controller instructs one plane to clear the RW but pilots misunderstand the instruction or appear on the RW by mistake and without checking their position ATC clears another aircraft for take off.

· Pilot related situation: pilots in unfamiliar airport acknowledge taxing instructions but being disorientated by night time or hot spots enter the active RW.

· Driver related situation: ground vehicle driver crosses the RW without ATC clearance.

There are also contributing factors: poor visibility, night time when there is no visual contact, complexity of airport marks and signs that can confuse the pilots, usage of non-standard phraseology that can result in misunderstanding.

 

Answer the questions?

1. What are the most difficult airports you have flown to?

2. What peculiarities of their layout can result in RW incursion?

3. Is your base airport exposed to incursions? What constant weather conditions can deteriorate the situation? What can you say about airfield design, position of the RW? Do you experience any problems in it?

4. Have you ever encountered difficult situations in hot spots of any airport?

5. What recommendations would you give to avoid unauthorized entrance the RW?

 

Dan Air crash

On the 25^th of April, 1980 B 727 belonging to Dan Air airline was executing charter flight from Manchester(the UK) to Tenerife (Spain). When the aircraft was on final approach to the airport Tenerife controller gave a holding pattern clearance to it by using the phrase ‘turn to the left’ when he should have said ‘turns to the left’(for circling). The captain complied with controller’s instructions and directed the aircraft left towards the southeast into the area of high mountains. Ambiguous command of Spanish controller disorientated pilot. Moreover ATC cleared the traffic for unrealistic track for holding pattern. In mountainous area for this aircraft it was impossible.

So, the aircraft made a single left turn rather than making circles using left turns. The jet hit a mountain killing 146 people.

 

Crash over JFK

On the 25^th of January in 1990 B707 was carrying out the flight from Bogotá, Spain to JFK, New York. They were flying in holding pattern over JFK for over an hour due to thick fog at the airport. They burnt all the fuel which was already not sufficient for getting to their alternative Boston. Having the fuel for some minutes the pilots addressed the controller with the words “we are running of fuel, we request priority for landing”. For controller it wasn’t an emergency and that’s why priority was not cleared. Soon the engines flamed out due to exhaustion and the plane dived towards the ground.

Misunderstanding between ATC and pilot was caused by the fact that the controller was unaware of linguistic differences of the word “priority” which for Spanish-speaking pilots means emergency. 73 out of 149 people on board perished in the accident.

Collision over Delhi

On the 12^th of November in 1996 Saudi Arabian B747 was en route from New Delhi, India to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia and collided in mid-air with Kazakhstan Il-76 en route from Kazakhstan to New Delhi. All 349 people on both aircraft were killed.

The investigators revealed that it was Kazakhstan pilots’ fault. (due to lack of English) Pilots were relying on their radio operator on communication with ATC. The radio operator asked controller about position of the Saudi airplane. Controller replied “traffic is 8 o’clock now, FL 140”. Pilots with their poor level of English ignored this communication and heard the last phrase “FL 140” understood as clearance for their descent. In some minutes both aircraft impacted.

 

UNIT 5

BIRD STRIKE

I. New vocabulary.

· Impact

· Rubbish dump/ landfill waste disposal site

· To attract birds

· To encounter

· To occur

· To endanger the flight

· To pose hazard/ threat to the aircraft

· To cause significant damage of the plane

· Bird ingestion

· Majority of strikes

· Breeding places

· Resistant to

· To suck the bird

· Flock of birds

· Vulnerable parts of the aircraft

· Prey bird/ predator

· Precaution measures

· Short-time solution

· To eliminate the problem

· Nestling

· Natural habitat

· Roosting site

· Shelter

· Cow scare

· Residential area

· Likelihood

· To jeopardize

· To deteriorate/ to impair

· Sufficient malfunction

· To mitigate the risk

· Constant vigilance of the RW

· To emit high frequency sounds

· To frighten/ chase/ scare the birds away

BIRD STRIKE

A BIRD STRIKE is defined as a collision between a bird or flock of birds and an aircraft in flight or on a take off or landing roll. The term usually covers other wildlife strikes - with bats or ground animals. It is a common threat to aircraft safety and has caused a number of fatal accidents.

Different factors can affect the likelihood of the bird strike

1. Location of the airport (the risk of the bird impact is higher if the airport is located close to the water surface - seas, rivers, lakes, residential area, city rubbish dumps, breeding places, agricultural fields as these places attract the birds)

2. Season of the year (there is high hazard during spring and autumn as it is migration time)

3. Time of the day (birds activity is more intensive in the morning when they rush to the breeding place and in the evening when they come back)

The seriousness of the bird strike depends on

· The size of the bird (The bigger the bird, the bigger the damage it causes the aircraft. Small birds simply die when they collide with the airplane, and the airplane moves on. Big birds can damage some parts of the airplane, which may or may not endanger the flight.)

· The speed of the aircraft on impact (If it happens on the ground while taxing when the speed of the plane is low, the effect of the impact will be minimum, if the aircraft encounters the birds on cruising level or during rolling for take off when the speed is higher, the damage of the plane will be more serious.)

· The phase of the flight (The majority of the strikes happen during take off, landing or approach phase)

       Day to day flight altitudes for most birds are in the range from the ground to 500 feet. Though great number of bird strikes occurs till 50 feet during landing or take off. The hazard of risk decreases doubly till 500 feet. Outside that rang