Тема 4 (3): polysemy and context

A full understanding of the semantic structure of any lexical item can be gained from the study of a variety of contexts in which the word is used. The term context is defined as the minimum stretch of speech necessary and sufficient to determine which of the possible meanings of a polysemantic word is used, e.g. blue eyes ‘having the colour of the clear sky or of the deep sea on a fine day’, to feel blue ‘be sad and without hope’. In some cases the microcontext (that of a sentence or a syntagm) is not sufficient, and a broader context, or macrocontext, is necessary, e.g.

The meaning or meanings of polysemantic words may be viewed as determined either by linguistic (or verbal) contexts or extra- linguistic (or non-verbal) contexts.

The two more or less universally recognized main types of linguistic contexts are the lexical and the grammatical contexts.

In lexical contexts the meaning is determined by the combinability or collocability of a polysemantic word with certain groups of lexical items. This can be illustrated by analysing different lexical contexts in which polysemantic words are used. The semantic structure of words belonging to different parts of speech is studied in their most typical syntactical patterns, e.g. A + N (adjective + noun) and N + link + A (noun + link verb + adjective) for an adjective or V + N (verb + direct object expressed by a noun) for a transitive verb.

The meaning of adjective heavy in isolation, i.e. least dependent on context, is ‘of great weight that makes carrying, moving or lifting difficult’ (heavy load, heavy goods, heavy suitcase, etc.). When combined with the lexical group of words denoting natural phenomena it means ‘of unusual force or amount’ (heavy rain, heavy wind, heavy storm). In combination with the words denoting food and meals it has the meaning ‘rather solid and bad for the stomach’ (heavy meal). When combined with words denoting periods of time it means ‘full of hard work’ (heavy day, heavy week, heavy timetable). In combination with the words industry, arms, artillery t he adjective heavy acquires the meaning ’the larger kind of something’, based on the idea of using large machines or producing large objects.

There is a hypothesis that the semantics of words regularly used in common contexts are so intimately correlated that each of them casts a kind of permanent reflection on the meaning of its neighbour. E.g. the negative evaluative connotation of the adjective notorious is linked with the negative connotation of the nouns with which it is regularly associated: a notorious criminal / thief / gangster / gambler / gossip / liar.

In grammatical contexts the meaning is determined by the grammatical (mainly syntactical) structure of the context. The individual meaning of the verb to have ‘to cause (something) to be (done by someone)’ occurs when the verb to have is followed by an object expressed by a noun and Participle II, e.g. He had his hair cut.

The individual meaning of the verb to go ‘to become (by a natural change or by changing on purpose)’ is dependent on the syntactic function of a link verb in the structure Link + A (link verb + predicative expressed by an adjective), e.g. Her hair’ s going grey. The milk went sour. He has gone blind. He went white with anger. This used to be a state school, but it’ s gone independent. This type of meaning is referred to as syntactically bound meaning. The individual meaning of the verb to make ‘to have the right qualities for a particular task or role’ is another example of a syntactically bound meaning, e.g. She will make a good secretary. Do garden tools make a good gift ’

In some cases only mixed context may be indicative of the difference between the individual meanings of the word in question, e.g. the grammatical structure of context hammer into smth is insufficient to indicate the individual meaning without the support of the lexical context. Compare ‘to drive a nail with a hammer into material or something made of such material’ in the sentence I can’t hammer this nail into the wall; either it’s bent or I must have struck a brick and ‘to beat something with a hammer so that it becomes an object or shape’ in the sentences The natives used to hammer the metal into arrowheads, using heavy stones and It took all the afternoon to hammer the bent wheel (back) into shape.

It is usual in modern linguistic science to use the terms pattern or structure to denote grammatical contexts. Patterns may be represented in conventional symbols, e.g. spill smth as spill + N / V + N and bless with health as bless with + N / V + prep + N (cf. May god bless you with a long life!).

In extra-linguistic context (or context of situation) the meaning of the word is determined by the actual speech situation in which the word in question is used. The meanings of the verb to get in the sentence I’ve got it may be interpreted as ‘possess’ or ‘understand’ depending on the actual situation in which it is used. Smart fellow may be interpreted as ‘quick in thinking’, ‘stylish in appearance’ or ‘clever and intelligent, but perhaps dishonest = quick to take advantage’.

To sum it up it should be noted that linguistic factors are more important in determining the word meaning.