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Порядок слів в англійському реченні.Стр 1 из 11Следующая ⇒
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Граматичні теми:
1. Порядок слів в англійському реченні. 1.1 Безособові речення. Наказові речення. Окличні речення. 1.2 Конверсія – можливість англійських слів виконувати різні функції. 2. Множина іменників. 3. Присвійний відмінок іменників. 4. Іменники у функції означення. 5. Словотворення: основні суфікси іменників. 6. Артиклі як показники конструкцій з іменниками. 7. Вживання деяких конструкцій з іменниками.
Граматичний коментар
Порядок слів в англійському реченні. Основною особливістю граматичного строю англійської мови є те, що у процесі історичного розвитку у неї зникли майже всі закінчення іменників і прикметників, а дієслово зберегло лише незначну кількість закінчень. Таким чином, англійська мова належить до групи аналітичних мов, тобто для будування речення в ній вживаються аналітичні засоби: члени англійського речення ідуть у певному, майже незмінюваному, порядку; широко вживаються такі будівні слова: артиклі, прийменники, допоміжні дієслова.
Порядок слів в англійському реченні
Центром англійського речення є підмет та присудок, тому в англійській мові, на відміну від російської мови, за звичай, неможливо речення без підмета і присудка. Порядок слів – це один із формальних показників, який може допомогти при перекладі з англійської мови на російську.
Безособові речення. Наказові речення. Окличні речення. Безособові речення (Impersonal Sentences)
У безособових реченнях роль підмета виконує прийменник it. Він використовується у таких випадках:
а) коли мова іде про явища природи.
b) при присудках, які означають стан погоди (to rain, to snow, to freeze)
c) при означенні часу, відстані
d) коли оцінюються повні явища
e) вживання у зворотах, які відповідають в укр. мові безособовим зворотам
Оборот it is… that
Коли хочуть зробити наголос на якомусь члені речення, його ставлять на початок речення між it is (was) і that(who, whom) when
При перекладі цього звороту часто вживаються слова а саме, це, тільки
Конверсія
Конверсія – це одна з форм словотворення, при якій від існуючого слова, без зміни його граматичної форми, утворюється нове слово, яке належить до іншої частини мови. Наприклад, від іменника може бути утворене дієслово:
У окремих випадках однакові форми зустрічаються у кількох частинах мови. Наприклад, back – може бути іменником зі значенням “спина”, прикметником у значенні “задній”, дієсловом зі значенням “піддержувати” і прислівником у значенні “туди-назад”. Показником того, до якої частини мови належить дане слово, є порядок слів і службові слова (артиклі, частки).
Утворення множини іменників
За своїм значенням іменники поділяються на дві основні групи: 1. імена власні (Proper Names) John, Europe, America 2. імена загальні (Common Nouns) Усі загальні іменники розподіляються, у свою чергу, також на дві групи: 1. Обчислювальні (countable nouns) 2. Необчислювальні (uncountable nouns)
Обчислювальні іменники вживаються як в однині так і у множині (a book – books; a student – students), можуть мати при собі артиклі a, an, the.
До необчислювальних іменників належать ті, що означають речовину (material) та абстрактні (abstract) іменники. Вони вживаються тільки в однині (knowledge, power, sugar) і не мають перед собою неозначеного артикля як показника однини (education, advice, progress, work, information, peace, furniture, hair, weather, food, money, news, health).
Деякі іменники, що означають речовину можуть вживатися для означення предмету чи предметів із даної речовини; у даному випадку вони переходять до обчислювальних.
Абстрактні іменники переходять до іменників, коли вони конкретизуються.
Відмінок іменників У сучасній англійській мові іменники мають тільки два відмінки: загальний (The Common Case), який не має спеціальних закінчень, і присвійний відмінок (The Possessive Case), який має закінчення – ‘s.
Іменники у загальному відмінку можуть вживатися як з прийменниками так і без них взагалі.
Таким чином, наявність прийменника є одним з формальних показників іменника.
Присвійний відмінок Відносини присвійності (питання кого? чого? чий), які передаються в українській мові родовим відмінком, у англійській мові передаються за допомогою присвійного відмінку. 1. Присвійний відмінок іменників у однині утворюється за допомогою закінчення – ‘s (знака апострофа і букви s), яке додається до іменника
2. Присвійний відмінок іменників у множині утвориться шляхом додатка до іменника одного ‘ – знака апострофа
Якщо іменник у множині не має закінчення, то присвійний відмінок утвориться як в однині
3. Коли дві особи є власником одного й того ж предмету, закінчення присвійного відмінку додається до останнього:
4. У присвійному відмінку можуть вживатися групи слів, які уявляють одне смислове ціле. У цьому випадку закінчення присвійного відмінку приймає останнє слово групи
5. Слова house, office, shop часто опускаються після іменника в присвійному відмінку
6. Крім іменників, означаючих живі істоти, форму присвійного відмінку мають: a) іменники, що означають проміжок часу та відстань
b) іменники, що означають країни, міста, а також слова world, country, city, ship, nature, earth
c) деталі машин та механізмів
d) деякі прислівники часу
e) стійкі вислови
Словотворення Основним і самим продуктивним засобом розширення і збагачення словникового запасу мови є словотворення, тобто утворення нових слів за допомогою афіксів (суфіксів та префіксів). Суфікс за звичаєм вживається для утворення однієї частини мови від другої. Для утворення іменників вживаються такі суфікси:
Для утворення іменників вживаються такі префікси:
Уровень II A house husband My wife is a social worker (0) and she works for the local council and has a very busy time...................... (1) every day. She obviously can't be in full....................... (2) work and be a house...................... (3) at the same time. This means I've been a...................... (4) husband for many years now, because my job as a text...................... (5) writer for students of English can be done from home working on a personal...................... (6). As we can't afford a baby....................... (7) I'm in charge of the baby as well as having to do all the cooking and washing....................... (8). My job is made much easier by the variety of...................... (9) goods available - I just put all the dirty plates in the dish...................... (10) and the baby's clothes in the...................... (11) machine and away I go. I'm free to produce yet another master...................... (12) for students on my...................... (13) processor. When my wife comes home at three she has a ready-made...................... (14) to look forward to. Not bad, eh?
The roots of education are bitter but the fruit is sweet. (ARISTOTLE)
How to learn vocabulary
TESTS
Directions: Complete the sentences below using the correct alternative from those marked A, B, C, or D.
The noun Test 1 1. When I come into ____ cottage, the family ____ sitting round the table playing draughts. Draughts ____ their favorite game. They like to play ____ in the evenings. A the Holley’s, were, are, it B Holley’s, was, are, them C the Holleys’, were, is, it D Holleys’s, was, is, them
2. When he was going through a narrow passage between two ____, he heard ____. These were his heigbours, two ____ girls. A merrys-go-round, laugh, twenty-years old B merry-go-round, a laugh, twenty-year old C merry-goes-round, laughter, twenty-years old D merry-goes-rounds, a laughter, twenty-year old
3. They decided to open a season. Though it was a fashionable party and the walls were decorated with ____ and ____, the majority of the guests ____ wearing jeans and T-shirts. A lilies-of-the-valley, forget-me-nots, were B lilies-of-the-valleys, forget-me-nots, were C lilies-of-the-valley, forgets-me-not, was D lilies-of-the-valleys, forgets-me-nots, was
4. The ____ wife was wearing a plain white dress with a string of pearls that cost more than my ____ salary. A governor’s-general, two years’ B governor-general’s, two years’ C governor-general, two years D governor’s-general’s, two-year
5. He pulled off his gloves and put ____ onto the dressing table. She noticed that ____ brand new. So was his hat. A it, it was B it, they were C them, it was D them, they were 6. He conducted a lot of ____ into ____ but ____a failure. A researches, hay fevers, they were B research, hay fever, it was C researches, hay fever, it was D research, hay fevers, they were
7. The proceeds of the campaign ____ been spent on the construction of the Children’s Care Centre. Road works ____ being held there to build a new ____ crossing. A has, are, pedestrian’s B have, are, pedestrian C has, is, pedestrians D have, is, pedestrians’
8. Look, Mary is playing with the scissors! Take ____ away from her, ____ may cut into her fingers. A it, it B them, it C it, they D them, they
9. Here ____ the pocket money my uncle has sent me today. ____ will be enough to settle all my debts. A are, It C is, It B is, They D are, They
10. The criteria ____ too vague. If there were a sharper ____ to make our choice, I would be happy. A is, criterion C is, criteria B are, criterion D are, criteria
11. The latest news from the Middle East countries ____ disturbing. A close-up camera showed a man running somewhere. His face was bruised and his clothes ____ torn. A was, was C was, were B were, were D were, was
12. The premises ____ big enough, but the inspection took them a lot of ____, and they had to drive home at ____. A was, time, dusks B were, times, a dusk C was, times, dusk D were, time, dusk
13. The price for ____ has increased by ten ____ in the last quarter. Lodgings ____ very expensive nowadays. A an accommodation, per cent, is B accommodation, per cent, are C accommodations, per cents, is D accommodation, per cents, are
14. That species of birds ____ migrant and ____ found in Africa in winter. Our surroundings ____ too severe for such birds and they leave ____ early in September. A is, is, are, them C is, is, is, it B are, are, are, them D are, are, is, it
15. The crossroads at our supermarket ____ a dangerous place. The traffic lights will help both pedestrians and drivers to avoid accidents. The police ____ to set ____ here. A are, needs, them C are, needs, it B is, need, them D is, need, it
16. Measles ____ a dangerous disease and a lot of children catch ____ at an early age. A is, them C are, them B is, it D are, it
17. This ____ the most effective means of production and ____ can be adjusted to your business in ____ time. A is, it, two month’s B are, they, a two-months C is, they, two-months D is, it, two-months
8. The Azores ____ are dark blue species that require ____ cultivation in temperate regions. A forget-me-nots, greenhouse C forget-me-not, greenhouse B forgets-me-nots, greenhouse’s D forgets-me-not, greenhouse’s
19. Reliable ____ about everyday clothing from the past ____ hard to obtain. A evidences, are С evidences, is B evidence, is D evidence, are
20. These species ____ protected in national parks and ____. A is, game reserves C evidences, is B are, game’s reserves D is, games reserves
The Article Test 2
1. ____ African cheetah is believed to be ____ fastest animal on ____ earth. A An, the, the C ____, ____, ____ B The, ____, ____ D The, the, ____ 2. ____ most cats hunt in ____ dim light, but they also hunt in ____ dark and in ____ daylight. A ____, ____, the, ____ B The, the, the, the C ____, ____, ____ D The, the, ____, the
3. ____ Captain Cook reached ____ Cape of Good Hope in ____ spring of 1771 and sailed via ____ St. Helena in the South Atlantic before arriving in England in July 1771. A The, the, ____, the C The, ____, ____, the B ____, the, the, ____ D ____, ____, the, ____
4. We must organize ____ little dinner to celebrate ____ event. Tell her to come and see me at ____ noon. We’ll speak about it. A ____, an, the C the, the, ____ B a, the, the, the D a, the, ____
5. She remained on desk until ____ midnight, and ____ following day she was carried up there again early in ____ morning. A ____, ____, the, the C the, the. ____ B a, the, the D a, the, ____
6. On the second day of our voyage, before we reached ____ Zanzibar, ____ Camellia ran into ____ bad weather, and ____ most of the passengers became seasick. A the, the, the, the B ____, the, ____, ____ C ____, ____, a, the D the, the, a, ____
7. Until the nineteenth century, ____ carpet was usually considered ____ work of ____ art and was made by hand. A the, ____, ____, ____ C the, a, ____, ____ B a, a, the, ____ D a, ____, the, the 8. At last ____ war ended, but the transition from war to ____ peace was painful for both sides. A the, the, the C a, a, a B ____, ____, ____ D the, ____, ____
9. ____ morning after ____ morning of ____ late he has taken his walk in the same direction trying to see her again. A A, a, the C ____, ____, ____ B The, the, ____ D A, a, ____
10. ____ common autumn phenomenon in ____ central and eastern USA and in ____ Europe is ____ Indian summer, a period of ____ unseasonably warm weather that sometimes occurs in ____ late September and October. A The, the, the, the, the, ____ B A, the, ____, the, the, the C A, ____, ____, ____, ____, the D A, the, ____, ____, ____, ____
11. By ____ late 18th century and ____ Captain Cook’s exploration of ____ southern Pacific, much of ____ world had been mapped. A the, the, the, the B ____, ____, ____, the C the, ____, the, the D the, ____, ____, ____
12. In 1620, ____ group of Leyden Puritans, 101 men, women and children, set our for ____, Virginia on ____ board ____ Mayflower. A the, the, the, the C a, ____, a, the B a, ____, ____, the D a, the, a, ____
13. At ____ zenith of their power in ____ Middle Ages craft guilds had ____ enormous power over their members. A ____, the, ____ C a, ____, the B the, the, an D a, the, ____
14. He was a page, that is ____ youth of ____ noble birth who left his family at ____early age to serve in the family of ____ man of ____ rank. A ____, the, an, a, the B a, ____, an, ____ C the, the, the, the, the D a, a, an, a, ____
15. ____ dinosaur is a reptile that was ____ dominant land animal during ____ most of ____ Mesozoic Era but became ____ extinct at its close. A The, the, the, the, the B The, the, ____, the, ____ C A, a, ____, ____, ____ D A, the, the, the, the
16. Only ____ tiny percentage of ____ plant species are directly used by ____ humans for ____ food, shelter, fiber, and drugs. A ____, ____, the, the C the, the, the, the B a, ____, ____, ____ D a, the, ____, the
Test 3
1. ____ East End has frequently been characterized by ____ poverty, crime, and slums. A The, the C ____, ____ B The, ____ D ____, the
2. The church calendar includes the fixed feasts, such as ____ Christmas, and ____ movable feasts, which depend on the date of ____ Easter. A the, the, the C ____, ____, ____ B ____, the, ____ D the, ____, the
3. In 1722 several thousand Polynesians inhabited the island but ____ diseases and raids by slave trades reduced ____ number to fewer then 200 by ____ late 19th century. A the, the, ____ C ____, the, ____ B the, a, the D ____, the, the
4. The island was named by ____ Dutch explorer who landed here on ____ Easter Day in 1722. A the, ____ C the, the B a, ____ D the, an
5. Born is Salinas, California, Steinbeck was educated at ____ Stanford University. As ____ youth, he worked as ____ ranch hand and fruit picker. A ____, a, a C the, the, the B the, ____, ____ D ____, ____, a
6. ____ pearl is ____ abnormal growth resulting from the invasion of the body of the mollusk by ____ minute particle of foreign matter, such as ____ fine grain of sand. A The, an, a, a C ____, the, ____, the B A, ____, the, ____ D The, an, the, the
7. ____ jade has always been prized by ____ Chinese and Japanese as ____ most precious of all ____ stones. A The, the, the, the C The, ____, the, ____ B ____, ____, ____, the D ____, the, the, ____
8. Sir Henry Morgan is said to have been kidnapped at Bristol when ____ boy and sold as ____servant on ____ West Indian island of Barbados. A ____, ____, ____ C the, the, ____ B a, a, the D a, the, a 9. ____ wealth acquired from ____ trade enabled ____ upper classes to live in ____luxury. A The, the, the, the C ____, ____, the, ____ B ____, ____, the, the D The, the, ____, _____
10. ____ cotton is still a principal raw material for ____ world’s textile industry, but its dominant position has been seriously eroded by ____ synthetic fibers. A The, the, the C The, ____, ____ B ____, ____, the D ____, the, ____
11. ____ American inventors Elisha Grey and Alexander Graham Bell applied for ____ patent on ____ telephone on the same day. A The, a, the C ____, a, a B ____, the, the D The, the, ____
12. ____ jade is ____ highly valued gemstone used in ____ jewelry. A The, the, ____ C ____, a, ____ B ____, the, the D The, a, the
13. ____ porcelain was ____ first made by ____ Chinese. A The, ____, the C ____, ____, the B The, the, ____ D ____, the, ____ 14. ____ gold is extremely inactive. It is unaffected by ____ air, heat, moisture, and ____ most solvents. A ____, ____, the B The, the, ____ C ____, ____, ____ D The, ____, ____
15. ____ optical phenomena, such as rainbows and halos occur when ____ light shines through cloud particles. A ____, ____ C The, the B The, ____ D ____, the
16. ____ stone picked up by ____ child on the banks of ____ Orange River in ____ South Africa in 1866 was a big diamond. A ____, a,the, the C ____, the, ____, the B A, a, ____, ____ D A, a, the, ____ 17. ____ E-mail and ____ Internet are ____ latest technologies that are spreading ____ American English A ____, ____, ____, the C The, the, the, ____ B ____, the, the, ____ D The, ____, ____, the
TEXTS Text 1: "LONDONERS" The districts in London have their special characters. Chelsea is known for its artists and Soho for its famous restaurants. According to tradition, the only "real" Londoners are cockneys. A cockney is a Londoner born within the sound of Bow Bells of the church in the City. Cockneys are known for their usual accent, which can be heard in the poor districts. London attracts many new residents from outside Britain. Today about a million Londoners are immigrants. Most immigrants have grouped together. Soho has many people of French and Italian ancestry. Most Londoners live in Suburban communities in comfortable single-family houses with gardens. Most of the families own their homes. Poor families and immigrants live in rental houses and apartments. London has 640 secondary schools and some famous public schools for boys-Harrow, Westminster and St. Paul's. University of London, with 65.000 students is the largest nation's university. The British Open University offers Instruction through radio, television and written correspondence. Soccer (football) is the most popular sport in England. 12 professional teams play on Saturdays from August through April. The championships are held in May at Wembley Stadium, which seats 100.000 spectators. Many teams in London play Rugby, from September through April. Cricket is a popular sport played in spring and summer. Londoners also enjoy golf, horse racing, and tennis. The famous annual Wimbledon Tennis Tournament take place in June and July at Wimbledon Park London. In the evening, Londoners enjoy watching television at home or a film at one of 200 cinemas of London. Many people spend the evening at their neighbourhood pub. London has about 5.600 pubs. The West End is the home of famous private clubs. Politicians and businessmen meet in these clubs for meals and conversation. The social problems of London include poverty, unemployment, crime, and drug addiction. Questions to the text; 1. Who is Cockney? 2. Where do most Londoners live? 3. What educational establishments are there in London? 4. What are the most popular sports in England? 5. What do Londoners enjoy doing in the evenings? 6. What do social problems of London include? Text 2: "LIFESTYLES" In Britain strangers don't talk to each other; it is polite to queue for everything; people say "thank you" when they give money to a shop assistant; people open presents in front of people they receive then from. British people are good listeners. Understatement is another character trait of the British. About half the population of Great Britain take part in sport. The most popular outdoor sporting activity is walking about 2 miles. The most popular indoor activity is Snooker (billiards). There are about 7 million dogs and over 7 million cats in Britain. One in ten people own a dog or cat. Every year the British spend over 1.5 billion pounds on pet food. They support 380 charities which protect animals. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is the largest animal welfare society in Britain. It provides practical help and campaigns against animal cruelty. It has over 250 inspectors who make sure nobody breaks the laws which protect animals. When a child is born its parents may announce the birth in a newspaper. The birth must be registered at the local registrar's office within 6 weeks in England. At the christening there is one godmother and 2 godfather for a boy and vice versa for a girl. The true role of godparents is to watch over the spiritual welfare of their godchildren until confirmation. Usually, the friends and relatives give a christening present. Traditionally, the godparents give a silver cup. Other presents include Bible, a poetry book, or a silver spoon. The 21-birthday is an important date in any person's life. It is official coming of age. A 21- birthday party is generally arranged. All those invited send cards and bring presents. The cards usually have a picture of a key on them, which is a symbol of independence. Often the guests bump him 21 times. Now, young people have the right to vote at 18, so many celebrate the 18- birthday. Questions to the text: 1. Are the British good listeners? 2. What is understatement? 3. Do people help charity in Britain? 4. What is the true role of godparents? 5. What date is important in any person's life? 6. Why do many people celebrate the 18-th anniversary now? Text 3: "CLUBS AND PUBS" The club is a typical image among British institutions. The clubs have an air of infinite mystery. The most hotel-like club is the Royal Automobile founded in 1897. It has three dining rooms, 12.000 members and a swimming pool once frequented by Bernard Shaw. Two of most active are the Reform and the Travellers, founded hi 1819 with the support of Duke Wellington. For the membership qualification one must have traveled 500 miles from London. Pub is a peculiarly English institution, and beer is the national drink. The rooms in the pub are called the "public bar" and the "saloon bar". They have two entrances. At the bar people will be standing with a drink and sip from time to time - for Englishmen sip their drinks. The saloon bar is more comfortable. There is a general atmosphere of warmth and cosiness. In the bar of every English pub there is a dartboard. The game of darts is a traditional English game. Here people don't drop in; they tend to "make an evening of it". They stand or sit, glass in hand, talking to friends until closing time. The landlord cries: "Time, gentlemen, please!" usually at half past ten. English pubs are famous throughout the world. You can go to a pub in England when you are 14, but an adult must go in with you. You can drink only soft drinks like Coca-Cola. You must wait until you are 18 if you want to drink alcohol. Television is a strong competitor but "the pub" will continue to accommodate itself to the times. The latest development in their long history is the "museum pub". The newest museum pub is The Railway Tavern in Liverpool Street. The Yorker in Piccadilly is not only a pub but also a museum with nostalgic sights in handsome prints and paintings. Evening classes are flourishing immensely. Many people attend classes connected with their hobbies such as painting, folk - dancing, dog training, cake decoration etc. Dancing is popular, and the dance halls are an important element in the folklore and courtship procedures. They are visited mainly by young unmarried people. Bingo is a gambling game in which players have numbered cards on which they cover the numbers as they are called on a wheel. The first player to complete his card wins the "jackpot", part of the money staked by players for their cards. Since the Betting Act of 1961 made the Bingo halls possible four of five British adults gamble in some way. Questions to the text; 1. What is the most hotel-like club in Britain and when was it founded? 2. What is a peculiarly English institution? 3. How are the rooms in the pub called? 4. What is a traditional English game? 5. Are English pub famous throughout the world? 6. What is flourishing immensely?
Text 4: " AFRICAN AMERICANS" The majority of people of African descent in the United States are descended from enslaved Africans. African peoples, especially those living in the USA are a very complex people biologically, ethnically, and racially. In their genetic make-up are Europeans, Native Americans, and Asians. They became a new people - a new American people. The slave trade was brutal and horrific. And slavery was oppressive and dehumanizing. Lasting 400 years, the slave trade forced migration of 12 million Africans from their homelands. The first African slaves came to Massachusetts from West Indies in 1638. The English colonist did not plan to establish the institution of slavery. It developed gradually. From the colonial point of view, Africans made better slaves. Also, they were much more used to farming than the Indians were. So eventually, slavery in the colonies became black African slavery. Enslaved Africans worked on sugar, tobacco, cotton, coffee and rice plantations. Wherever slavery existed, slaves ran away, 50.000 enslaved Africans ran away each year in the American South before the Civil War. They disappeared in free black communities in the South, the North and abroad. Others settled in Native American communities and became actively involved in the anti-slavery struggle. Still others ran away and created new communities where they set up their own systems of government and led their own lives. During the dominant form of education to enslaved Africans was apprenticeships. The first schools were established in Charleston and New York City. Within two decades of the end of the Civil War, a vast network of black colleges had been established by and for the first generation of freemen and women. Enslaved Africans on board slave ships were Frequently forced to dance. They were given drums to play while others sang and danced. Africans in America built their religious and secular rituals, festivals and social gatherings on the foundation of songs, dances and rhythms they invented. In the United States, the dominant forms of American music and dance are African-based. Drums were outlawed in many slave communities when the slave "masters" discovered they could be used as secret means of communication. In the place of drums, enslaved Africans substituted hand clapping and tapping the feet. Questions to the text; 1. What did the slave trade force in Africa? 2. Where did enslaved Africans Work? 3. Where did Africans Settle? 4. What was the dominant form of education to enslaved Africans? 5. What were enslaved Africans forced to do on board ships? 6. What are the dominant forms of American music and dance based on?
Text 5: "SCOTLAND TODAY" It is densely populated part of the UK: 67 people per sq. km. Most people live in the industrialized central bell along the Forth-Clyde valley (population density is 400 people per sq. km). The Scottish form of Gaelic is spoken by 70.000 people. Scottish education policy is set down by The Scottish Executive Education Department. The 32 Scottish local authorities are responsible for educational provision in their areas. There is no statutory National Curriculum in Scotland. In Scotland there are 2.716 state-funded schools. 130 independent schools educate 100 Scottish students. Scotland's electronics industry employs over 50.000 people. Famous Scots include: • Alexander Graham Bell developed the telephone • John Logic Baird pioneered television • Adam Smith, philosopher and economist • Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes • Robert Louis Stevenson, writer • Sir Eduardo Paolozzi, sculptor Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland. By the middle of the 15-th century the city had stretched only halfway down the slope, though it had roughly taken the form it was to keep until the late 18-th century, when the New Town was built. Edinburgh is a city where the historic past lives side by side with the present, for centuries the home of Scottish Kings and Queens. The city is important largely as an intellectual center. It has one of the oldest universities in Europe the University of Edinburgh, which was founded in 1582. The first thing one can see is a very large hill in the middle of Edinburgh-the Rock. Edinburgh is famous for many things: its art galleries, museums, libraries, its buildings such as the Castle Rock. The capital of Scotland has a population of 400.000 and is a very historic city with some of the finest architecture in Europe. Its most famous building is the Edinburgh Castle which dominates the rest of the city. The Royal Family have a home in Edinburgh-the Palace of Holyroodhouse. There are several museums and galleries around this part of the city. It may be one of the reasons why Edinburgh is sometimes called the Athens of the North. The W. Scott Monuments is the best known monument in Edinburgh. It was completed in 1844 in the form of a Gothic spire 200feet high with a statue of Sir Walter Scott inside this beautiful Structure. Questions to the text; 1. Where do most people live in Scotland? 2. Who are the most famous Scots? 3. Where was the city situated by the middle of the 15-th century? 4. What kind of city is Edinburgh? 5. What is the first thing one can see in Edinburgh? 6. What is Edinburgh famous for? Text 6: "WALES" St. David is the patron saint of Wales. On 1-st March, St. David's Day, Patriotic Welsh people wear a leek or a daffodil, both symbols of Wales. Wales is approximately 150 miles from North to South. About two-thirds of the total population live in the South Wales coastal area, where the three biggest towns are located: Swansea, Cardiff, and Newport. Welsh is one of the Celtic languages, like Scottish and Irish Gaelic. It is estimated that Welsh is spoken by 16 to 20 per cent of the population, although in North and West Wales 50 per cent speak the language. The most common Welsh surnames were all originally Christian names in some form: Dylan Thomas, Roger Davies (a form of David), Geoffrey Jones (from John), ect. Welshmen living in England are often called by the nick name "Taffy". This may come from the River Taff, Which runs through the capital Cardiff, or it may come from Dafydd, the Welsh form of David. Mining has been one of the great Welsh industries for many years along with the iron and steel trades. During the industrial revolution of the 18-th and 19-th centuries, the valleys of South Wales became the iron and steel capital of the world. The traditional culture in Wales has always placed special emphasis on the reading of poetry and the singing of choirs. In the 19-th century there was a powerful puritan religious movement that preached a good and simple life. In the chapels the oratory of the preacher and the strong singing of male voice choirs were used to win the hearts of the people and turn them away from bad living. Rugby Union is the national game of Wales, and during the 1970 s the Welsh team was thought to be the best in the world. Welsh is a Celtic language, and is very difficult to learn. It has very musical intonation, and difficult sounds such as ch and 11. Because many people in Wales speak English, the Welsh language has borrowed a lot of English words. There are three National Parks in Wales which cover approximately one-fifth of the whole country. These parks are protected by law because of their natural beauty. The most famous of the parks is Snowdonia in the North-West. Many people travel to the parks each year for specia
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