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Aspect and the lexical character of the verbСодержание книги
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• dynamic verbs (normally used in the Continuous): 1. activity and process verbs (ask, drink, eat, change, throw) often indicate incomplete actions in progress; 2. verbs of bodily sensation (ache, feel, hurt) can have common or continuous aspect with little difference in meaning; 3. transitional event verbs (arrive, leave, die, fall) in the Continuous form, only imply the approach to the transition; 4. momentary / point action verbs (hit, jump, knock, nod) express repetition. • Stative verbs (normally disallow continuous forms): 1. verbs of mental perception and cognition (astonish, believe, doubt, know, love, prefer, wish) admit of the continuous forms only when they change their meaning: I think you're right. – I'm thinking of you all the time; (Stative) (dynamic) 2. relational verbs (be, belong, consist, have, seem, need). However: I'm sorry I'm being clumsy. He's always having to check his emotions. You're wishing I hadn't done it. (stylistic transposition of the marked form) Aspect with terminative and durative verbs Durative verbs the difference between Common and Continuous forms is purely grammatical and can be neutralized: He is working on some kind of invention. -- He works on some kind of invention. Terminative verbs Common and Continuous forms are not interchangeable because of the important semantic difference: He broke three cups. — He was breaking cups. The bus stopped. — The bus was stopping.
The category of Voice • Morphological expression of the relations between the action, its subject and object. • grammatical Subject and Object (подлежащее и дополнение); • semantic subject and object (субъект и объект); • The form of the verb shows what semantic roles the grammatical Subject and Object perform in the sentence. ACTIVE -The action issues from the grammatical Subject coinciding with the semantic subject – the doer of the action): He wrote the letter. Sgr/sem Ogr/sem PASSIVE -The action is experienced by the grammatical Subject (the semantic object), the Subject is acted upon: The letter was written (by him) Sgr= Osem Ogr= Ssem VOICE opposition • Covers both finite and non-finite forms of the verb: writes-- – is written+ to write-- – to be written+ writing-- – being written+ • The Passive form (marked / strong member of the opposition) — analytical: to be + Participle II • discontinuous morpheme: be…en • meaning of the marked member: the grammatical Subject is acted upon, it receives the action from the outside. ACTIVE (weak member) • presents the action as originating in the grammatical Subject, the Subject is not acted upon: Lexically active (Kill, beat, break, etc.) and passive (suffer, see, hear, etc) (lexically passive in the active voice) verbs The Middle / Neuter Voice? The door opened; The paper burned; The water boiled. • the form of the verb is active; • the grammatical meaning: the process is going on in the Subject Є the grammatical meaning of the Active Voice: the Subject is NOT acted upon from the outside. • Lexically passive verbs in the active voice. Reflexive and Reciprocal Voices? Verbs in the active form + reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself, ourselves, etc. or reciprocal pronouns – each other, one another — free phrases and not analytical forms of the reflexive or reciprocal voices: • the pronouns preserve their respective lexical meanings; • can function as separate parts of the sentence: She washed herself and her child (homogeneous objects). Voice and Syntactic Structure The Active construction • for objective transitive verbs) – three obligatory elements: Subject, Predicate, Object: They cooked a slap-up supper. • for subjective intransitive verbs – Subject, Predicate (no Object): He smiled. The door opened. The Passive construction • Essentially two-member: has only two obligatory members – the Subject ( Semantic object) and the Predicate (the Object = the semantic subject – is optional) – short Passive: I was much interviewed and much photographed. • the semantic subject may be expressed by the grammatical prepositional object (by-object) – long Passive: He was surrounded [by a ring of men]. Verbs used in the Passive Voice • Most transitive verbs (except have, resemble, lack, become, suit, fail, cost, etc.); • objective verbs: He did not attend to the sick man. – The sick man was not attended to. • some intransitive verbs: Her bed this morning has not been slept in. The house has not been long lived in. Peculiarities of English Passive Constructions • Verbs admitting of two objects can have two passive constructions (give, buy, bring, ask, promise, show, teach, tell, etc.). He gave the girl (Oi) a doll (Od). — (1) A doll was given (to the girl). (2) The girl was given a doll. • a verb in the Passive Voice can be followed by a direct Object: They are denied their civil rights.
MOOD and MODALITY • Mood – grammatical category of the verb expressing modality (a morphological expression of modality); • Modality – a broad linguistic conceptual category denoting the speaker's evaluation of reality. • Means of expressing modality: - phonetic (intonation, prosody); - lexical (modal verbs, modal words, words with a modal meaning); - grammatical (moods). Modality • Linguistic o bjective modality – the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker (the speaker presents the action as a real or imaginary, problematic fact). Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. • expressed morphologically by the category of Mood. • Linguistic subjective (secondary) modality – the subjective evaluation of the event by the speaker or the doer of the action. • expressed lexically: (a) modal verbs or verbs with a modal meaning: I must apologize to you. He wanted to leave; (b) modal words: Unfortunately, he fell ill. Category of Mood • the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker's point of view. • Mood is characteristic only of finite forms of the verb: a predicative category. Mood meanings • the Indicative (читаю – читал – буду читать), represents an action as a real fact in the present, past or future; • the Imperative (читай – читайте), represents an action as a direct urge in the form of a command, request, etc.; • the Subjunctive (читал бы), represents an action as a non-fact – imaginary, problematic, contrary to reality. The category of Mood in English (established facts): • There IS a category of Mood in English; • There are at least two Moods in English; • There is the Indicative Mood in English. disputable number of moods in English: • 2 moods: indicative and imperative ( L.S.Barkhudarov); • 3 moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive (B.A.Ilyish, I.P.Ivanova –the tradit. point of view); • 6 moods: indicative, imperative and 4 oblique (A.I.Smirnitsky); • 7 moods: indicative, optative (imperative, desiderative), speculative (G.N. Vorontsova); • 15-16 moods (M. Deutschbein, E. Nida) • V.Ya. Plotkin denies the existence of the category of Mood in English altogether. Subjunctive Mood forms • be/go – subordinate nominal and adverbial clauses of purpose and concession He suggested that he come for her. • were/went – object clauses after the verb to wish, after it's high time, in adverbial clauses with the conjunctions if, as if, even if: He looked at me as if he were enjoying a good joke at my expense. A. I. Smirnitsky’s classification • Based on the unity of form and meaning: each form is characterized by its peculiar modal meaning and its peculiar distribution. • The Suppositional Mood is parallel to the synthetic form of Subjunctive I and is interchangeable with it. Both the forms are in non-contrastive distribution (same meaning in the same position). Should + Infinitive is a free (modal) phrase and NOT an analytical mood from. Subjunctive II and Conditional • the same modal meaning (hypothetical actions, contrary to reality). • should/would + Infinitive and were/asked are in complementary distribution (same meaning in different positions). • L.S. Barkhudarov and D.A. Shteling consider were/asked and should/would be/ask as the synthetic and analytical varieties of the same Subjunctive Mood.
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