Add to your active vocabulary

 

prestigious job (work) –престижная работа

experienced worker – опытный работник

well-paid job – высокооплачиваемая работа

to be hired for a job – быть нанятым

employee – наемный рабочий

employer – наймодатель

to look for a new job(work, position) – искать новую работу

entrepreneur, businessman – предприниматель

state-employed – государственный служащий

to apply for a new job – претендовать на какую-то должность

white-collar worker – «белый воротничок», работник умственного труда

application for a position of – заявление на какую-либо должность

blue-collar worker – «синий воротничок», работник физического труда

resume – резюме

C.V. (curriculumvitae) – резюме автобиография

Skilledworker – квалифицированный работник

to be fired – быть уволенным

unskilled worker– неквалифицированный рабочий

to retire– уходить на пенсию

to be unemployed –быть безработным

 

TEACHER’S PROFESSION

When young people choose the profession of a teacher, it is always necessary to bear in mind that teaching is a very difficult job. It implies great responsibility and a lot of activities of different kind both in class and at home. There are always a lot of copybooks to be corrected, plans to be written, and problems to be discussed. In fact, there are no days off for a teacher: he or she constantly occupied with thoughts about school, lessons and pupils. This is why it is often said that teacher’s job is very specific.

On the other hand, a good teacher does not only give knowledge but also serves a model of behavior for his or her pupils, especially the young ones. He or she forms the pupils’ attitude to the subject. The manner in which he or she teaches matters a lot. On the other hand, a teacher mustn’t forget that he or she must study from the pupils. Studying is a constant process for a teacher. If one stops studying, learning something new every day, both in the sphere of his or her professional interest or in people’s relations, this means that it is time to stop teaching. Otherwise, it will do no good for the teacher and for the pupil.

The teacher’s task is not only to provide the pupils with information, but also to prepare them for everyday life, to make them good and responsible citizens of the society. While communicating with children a teacher studies them. The teacher must know the pupils’ interests beyond the classroom, share their concerns, and learn about their needs and abilities. He or must be well aware of the pupils’ good and bad sides, too.

Classroom climate depends a lot on the relations between a teacher and a pupil. Mutual respect of the teacher and the pupils is necessary if one wants to create a good a fruitful atmosphere at the lesson. To achieve this, the teacher’s thinking should be on a higher level than that of the pupils.

It is the main aim of education to help children to live in the community to prepare for real life situations. School becomes a place for work and play, for living and learning. A teacher takes an active part in shaping a child’s character, fostering honesty, kindness and cooperation.

Teaching is a very difficult job but those who are well-equipped for it will have a happy and interesting life.

 

Vocabulary Bank

to bear in mind	осознавать
to imply	подразумевать
responsibility	ответственность
constantly	постоянно
behavior	поведение
attitude	отношение
to provide	обеспечивать
citizen	гражданин
society, community	общество
to share	делить
to depend on	зависеть от
mutual	взаимный
to respect	уважать
fruitful	плодотворный
to achieve	достигать
level	уровень
aim	цель
honesty	честность
cooperation	сотрудничество
well-equipped	хорошо подготовленный

Exercises

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Why have you chosen to become a teacher?

2. Where will you work after you graduate?

3. What subject will you teach after you graduate?

4. When will you graduate? What year are you in now?

5. It is responsible to bring up new generation, isn’t it? Why?

6. What subjects in the curriculum will help you to teach children?

7. What kinds of teaching activities are taught at your Institute?

8. Do the students at your Institute do teaching practice?

9. What age group would you like to teach? Why?

10. What will you do besides teaching your subjects at school?

11. Should a teacher devote much time to out-of-class work?

12. What outstanding educators do you know? Whose methods are you going to use in your everyday work? Why? Describe one of these methods.

13. What are the duties of the teacher?

14. Why is the teacher’s profession considered one of the most important?

 

2. Form the adjectives from the following nouns:

responsibility, activity, honesty, kindness, cooperation, respect, thoughts, education, profession, interesting.

 

3. Study the following sentences. Each word in italics below refers to something already mentioned. Say what each word in italics refers to.

1. When young people choose the profession of a teacher, it is always necessary to bear in mind that teaching is a very difficult job. It implies great responsibility and a lot of activities of different kind both in class and at home.

2. On the other hand, a good teacher does not only give knowledge but also serves a model of behavior for his or her pupils, especially the young ones.

3. The teacher’s task is not only to provide the pupils with information, but also to prepare them for everyday life, to make them good and responsible citizens of the society. While communicating with children a teacher studies them.

4. To achieve this, the teacher’s thinking should be on a higher level than that of the pupils.

5. Teaching is a very difficult job but those who are well-equipped for it will have a happy and interesting life.

 

Приложение 1. FAMOUS EDUCATORS

ERNST WEBER (1795-1878) was born in Wittemburg: Germany, the third of 13 children. He received his doctorate from the University of Leipzig in 1815, in physiology. He began teaching there after graduation, and continued until he retired in 1871.

His research focused on the senses of touch and kinesthesia He was the first to show the existence of kinesthesia, and showed that touch was a complex sense composed of senses for pressure, temperature and pain.

His chosen interests led him to certain techniques; first there is the two-point threshold (пороговая величина между двумя точками), which is a matter of measuring the smallest distance noticeable to touch at various parts of the body. For example, the tongue had the smallest threshold (1 mm), and the back had the largest (60 mm).

This is known as Weber’s Law, and is the first such “law” relating a physical stimulus with a mental experience.

Ernst Weber also named and studied discipline, psychophysics which he defined as the study of the systematic relationships between physical events and mental events. In 1860 he published the elements of Psychophysics. In this work Weber showed that psychological events are tied to measurable physical events in a systematic way, which everyone at that time thought impossible.

 

WILHELM MAX WUNDT (1832-1920), German psychologist, the founder of scientific psychology as an independent discipline. Born in Neckarau, he was educated at the universities of Tubingen and Heidelberg and the Institute of Physiology in Berlin. After teaching physiology at the University of Heidelberg (1858-1874), he taught philosophy at the University of Zurich (1874-1875) and was Professor of Philosophy at the University of Leipzig from 1875 to 1917.

Wundt offered the first academic course in psychology in 1862 and established the first laboratory for experimental psychology in 1879. He founded the first psychological journal, Philosophische Studien (Studies in Philosophy), in 1881.

Wundt promoted what is known as structuralist psychology, focusing on observations of the conscious mind rather than inference. Wundt also carried out extensive experimental research on perception, feeling, and apperception (a phase of perception where there is full recognition of what has been perceived). His more than 500 published works include Principles of Physiological Psychology (2 volumes, 1873-1874) and the monumental work Elements of Folk Psychology (10 volumes, 1900-1920).He also wrote Logik (1880), Ethik (1886), and System der Philosophie (1889).

 

ALFRED BINET (1857-1911), French psychologist known for his achievement in developing a standard intelligence test. Binet was born on July 11, 1857, in Nice. He was educated at the Sorbonne, where he studied law. However, he decided to continue his studies in medicine and psychology. In 1889, at the Sorbonne, he helped to found the first psychological research laboratory in France. As director of the laboratory, Binet tried to develop experimental techniques to measure intelligence and reasoning ability. In 1895, he founded the first French psychological journal, L’AnneePsychologique (The Psychological Year), and used it to publish the results of his research studies.

Binet’s most important work was in intelligence testing. With his colleague, psychologist Theodore Simon, he developed a test to measure the mental ability of children. The Binet-Simon Scale first appeared in 1905. It was made up of problems designed to measure general intelligence, and items were graded according to age level. The child’s score, based on the number of correct answers, showed the child’s mental age.

Binet died in Paris on October 18, 1911. His work on intelligence measurement remained important among psychologists in other countries. The Stanforcl-Binet Scale, an adaptation of Binet’s original test, was widely used for many years in the United States, where great importance was paid to intelligence testing.

 

WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910) is an American psychologist, who developed the philosophy of pragmatism. James was born in New York on January 11, 1842. His father, Henry James, was a theologian (тeoлог). William James attended private schools in the United States and Europe, the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University, and the Harvard Medical School, from which he received a degree in 1869. Before finishing his medical studies, he went on an exploring expedition in Brazil and also studied physiology in Germany. After three years of retirement due to illness, James became an instructor in physiology at Harvard in 1872. After 1880 he taught psychology and philosophy at Harvard; he left Harvard in 1907 and gave highly successful lectures at Columbia University and the University of Oxford.

James’s first book, the monumental Principles of Psychology (1890), established him as one of the most influential thinkers of his time. The work was devoted to the principle of functionalism in psychology, thus removing psychology from its traditional place as a branch of philosophy and establishing it among the laboratory sciences based on experimental method.

In the next decade James applied his methods of investigation to philosophical and religious issues (npоблемы). He explored the questions of the existence of God, the immortality of the soul (бeccмертие души), free will (cвобода воли), and ethical values (этические ценности) by referring to human religious and moral experience. His views on these subjects were presented in the lectures and essays published in such books as The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897), Human Immortality (1898), and The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902). The last-named work is a sympathetic psychological account of religious and mystical experiences.

James died in New Hampshire, on August 26, 1910.

 

JEAN-MARTIN CHARCOT (1825-1893) was born in Paris on November 29, 1825. He received his Master’s degree at the University of Paris in 1853. In 1860 he became a professor at his alma mater. Two years later, he began to work at hospital as well. In 1882, he opened a neurological clinic and became known throughout Europe. Students came from everywhere to study the new field. Among them were Alfred Binet and a young Sigmund Freud.

Charcot is well known in medical circles for his studies of the neurology of motor disorders, resulting diseases and localization of brain functions. He is considered the father of modern neurology.

In psychology, he is best known for his use of hypnosis to successfully treating women suffering from the psychological disorder then known as hysteria.

Charcot believed that hysteria was due to a congenitally (врожденно) weak nervous system, combined with the effects of some traumatic experience. Hypnotizing these patients brought on a state similar to hysteria itself. He found that, in some cases, the symptoms would actually lessen after hypnosis, although he was only interested in studying hysteria, not in curing it. Others would later use hypnosis as a part of curing the problem.

Charcot died in France, on August 16, 1893.

 

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL (1847-1922) was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. His education was largely received through numerous experiments in sound and the furthering of his father’s work on Visible Speech for the deaf. Bell worked with Thomas Watson on the design and patent of the first practical telephone. In all, Bell held 18 patents in his name alone and 12 that he shared with collaborators. He died on August 2, 1922, in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. (He was given the middle name “Graham” when he was 10 years old.) The second son of Alexander Melville Bell and Eliza Grace Symonds Bell, he was named for his paternal grandfather, Alexander Bell. For most of his life, the younger Alexander was known as «Aleck» to family and friends. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell (1845–70) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–67), both of whom died from tuberculosis.

During his youth, Alexander Graham Bell experienced significant influences that would carry into his adult life. One was his hometown of Edinburgh, Scotland, known as the “Athens of the North”, for its rich culture of arts and science. Another was his grandfather, Alexander Bell, a well-known professor and teacher of elocution. Alexander’s mother also had a profound influence on him, being a proficient pianist despite her deafness. This taught Alexander to look past people’s disadvantages and find solutions to help them.

Alexander Graham Bell was homeschooled by his mother, who instilled in him an infinite curiosity about the world around him. He received one year of formal education in a private school and two years at Edinburgh’s Royal High School. Though a mediocre student, he displayed an uncommon ability to solve problems. At age 12, while playing with a friend in a grain mill, he noted the slow process of husking the wheat grain. He went home and built a device with rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes that dehusked the wheat. It was his first invention.

Alexander’s father, Melville, followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming a leading authority on elocution and speech correction. Young Alexander was groomed early to carry on in the family business, but he was ambitious and headstrong, which conflicted with his father’s overbearing manner. Then, in 1862, Alexander’s grandfather became ill. Seeking to be out of his father’s control, Alexander volunteered to care for the elder Bell. The experience profoundly changed him. His grandfather encouraged his interests, and the two developed a close relationship. The experience left him with an appreciation for learning and intellectual pursuits, and transitioned him to manhood.

At 16, Alexander Graham Bell accepted a position at Weston House Academy in Elgin, Scotland, where he taught elocution and music to students, many older than he. At the end of the term, Alexander returned home and joined his father, promoting Melville Bell’s technique of Visible Speech, which taught the deaf to align specific phonetic symbols with a particular position of the speech organs (lips, tongue, and palate).

Between 1865 and 1870, there was much change in the Bell household. In 1865, Melville Bell moved the family to London, and Alexander returned to Weston House Academy to teach. In 1867, Alexander’s younger brother, Edward, died of tuberculosis. The following year, Alexander rejoined the family and once again became his father’s apprentice. He soon assumed full charge of his father’s London operations while Melville lectured in America. During this time, Alexander’s own health weakened, and in 1870,

Alexander’s older brother, Melville, Jr., also died of complications from tuberculosis.

On his earlier trip to America, Alexander’s father discovered its healthier environment, and after the death of Melville, Jr., decided to move the family there. At first, Alexander resisted the move, for he was beginning to establish himself in London. But realizing his own health was in jeopardy, he relented, and in July 1870, the family settled in Brantford, Ontario, Canada. There, Alexander’s health improved, and he set up a workshop to continue his study of the human voice.

In 1871, Melville Bell, Sr. was invited to teach at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes. Because the position conflicted with his lecture tour, he recommended Alexander in his place. The younger Bell quickly accepted. Combining his father’s system of Visible Speech and some of his own methods, he achieved remarkable success. Though the school had no funds to hire Bell for another semester, he had fallen in love with the rich intellectual atmosphere of Boston. In 1872, he set out on his own, tutoring deaf children in Boston. His association with two students, George Sanders and Mabel Hubbard, would set him on a new course.

After one of his tutoring sessions with Mabel, Bell shared with her father, Gardiner, his ideas of how several telegraph transmissions might be sent on the same wire if they were transmitted on different harmonic frequencies. Hubbard’s interest was piqued. He had been trying to find a way to improve telegraph transmissions, which at the time could carry only one message at a time. Hubbard convinced Thomas Sanders, the father of Bell’s other student, George, to help financially back the idea.

Between 1873 and 1874, Alexander Graham Bell spent long days and nights trying to perfect the harmonic telegraph. But his attention became sidetracked with another idea: transmitting the human voice over wires. The diversion frustrated Gardiner Hubbard. He knew another inventor, Elisha Gray, was working on a multiple-signal telegraph. To help Bell refocus his efforts, Hubbard hired Thomas Watson, a skilled electrician. Watson understood how to develop the tools and instruments Bell needed to continue the project. But Watson soon took interest in Bell’s idea of voice transmission. Like many inventors before and since, the two men formed a great partnership, with Bell as the ideas man and Watson having the expertise to bring Bell’s ideas to reality.

Through 1874 and 1875, Bell and Watson labored on both the harmonic telegraph and a voice transmitting device.

Hubbard insisted that the harmonic telegraph take precedence, but when he discovered that the two men had conceptualized the mechanism for voice transmission, he filed a patent. The idea was protected, for the time being, but the device still had to be developed. On March 10, 1876, Bell and Watson were experimenting in their laboratory. Legend has it that Bell knocked over a container of transmitting fluid and shouted, “Mr. Watson, come here. I want to see you!”

The more likely explanation was that Bell heard a noise over the wire and called to his assistant. In any case, Watson heard Bell’s voice

To further promote the idea of the telephone, Bell conducted through the wire and thus received the first telephone call, a series of public demonstrations, ever increasing the distance between the two telephones. At the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, Bell demonstrated the telephone to the Emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro II, who exclaimed, “My God, it talks!” Other demonstrations followed, each at a greater distance than the last. The Bell Telephone Company was organized on July 9, 1877. With each new success, Alexander Graham Bell was moving out of the shadow of his father.

On July 11, 1877, with his notoriety and financial potential increasing, Alexander Graham Bell married Mabel Hubbard, his former student and the daughter of Gardiner Hubbard, his initial financial backer. Over the course of the next year, Alexander’s fame grew internationally and he and Mabel traveled to Europe for more demonstrations. While there, the Bells’ first child, Elsie May, was born. Upon their return to the United States, Bell was summoned to Washington D.C. to defend his telephone patent from lawsuits by others claiming they had invented the telephone or had conceived of the idea before Bell.

Over the next 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced over 550 court challenges, including several that went to the Supreme Court, but none was successful. Despite these patent battles, the company continued to grow. Between the years 1877 and 1886, the number of people in the United States who owned telephones grew to more than 150,000, and during this time, improvements were made on the device, including the addition of a microphone, invented by Thomas Edison, which eliminated the need to shout into the telephone to be heard.

Despite his success, Alexander Graham Bell was not a businessman. As he became more affluent, he turned over business matters to Hubbard and turned his attention to a wide range of inventions and intellectual pursuits. In 1880, he established the Volta Laboratory, an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery. There, he developed a metal jacket to assist patients with lung problems, conceptualized the process for producing methane gas from waste material, developed a metal detector to locate bullets in bodies and invented an audiometer to test a person’s hearing. He also continued to promote efforts to help the deaf, and in 1890, established the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf.

In the last 30 years of his life, Bell was involved in a wide range of projects and pursued them at a furious pace. He worked on inventions in flight (the tetrahedral kite), scientific publications (Science magazine), and exploration of the earth (National Geographic magazine).

Alexander Graham Bell died peacefully, with his wife by his side, in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada, on August 2, 1922. The entire telephone system was shut down for one minute in tribute to his life. Within a few months, Mabel also passed away. Alexander Graham Bell’s contribution to the modern world and its technologies was enormous.

 

GRACE ABBOTT (1878-1939), born in Nebraska in 1878, started out as a high school teacher before becoming a leading social reformer. She formed the Immigrants Protective League in 1909. For several years, Abbott fought hard to improve and protect the lives of immigrants in the United States. Abbott moved to Washington, D.C., to head up the Child Labor Division of the Children’s Bureau in 1917. In 1921, Abbott became the director of the Children’s Bureau. She spent her final years as a professor at the University of Chicago. Abbott died in 1939.

Born on November 17, 1878, social activist Grace Abbott grew up in Grand Island, Nebraska. She and her older sister, Edith, both inherited their mother’s interest in making the world a better place. Their mother, Lizzie, a Quaker, was involved in both the abolitionist and suffragist movements. Their father, Othman, a Civil War veteran, was a lawyer and a politician. He was elected to be the first lieutenant governor of Nebraska in 1876.

In 1898, Abbott graduated from Grand Island College. She spent several years working as a high school teacher before finding her true calling. Around 1907, Abbott moved to Chicago, Illinois, to advance her education and lived with her sister Edith. She soon moved into Hull House, a settlement created by social activists Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. In 1909, Abbott earned a doctorate in political science from University of Chicago (some sources say she earned a master’s degree).

Around the time she completed her degree, Abbott formed the Immigrants Protective League. She created the organization to help the many new arrivals to the Chicago area. Abbott felt that immigrants needed protection from unsavory employers and others looking to exploit their lack of language skills and naiveté about American business, laws and culture.

Abbott sought to find ways to help immigrants adjust to their new homeland as well as to advocate for laws to shield them from harm. Her position was in opposition to the anti-immigrant sentiments held by many at the time. In 1911, Abbott traveled to Eastern Europe to learn more about the places and cultures of the immigrant populations she worked so hard to help. She wrote about her experiences with IPL in her first book, The Immigrant and the Community (1917).

In 1917, Abbott moved to Washington, D.C., to take on a new challenge. She headed up the Child Labor Division with the Children’s Bureau. As part of her job, Abbott worked to enforce a 1916 federal law that prohibited interstate commerce of goods created by child labor. The Supreme Court, however, soon overturned this law on the grounds it interfered with states’ rights. This defeat inspired Abbott to lobby for a constitutional amendment to ban child labor.

Abbott became the head of the Children’s Bureau in 1921. In her new position, she championed another cause—providing health care to pregnant women and mothers. The funding for this effort from the Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921. Abbott oversaw more than 3,000 centers nationwide that were a part of this program.

In addition to this effort, she also wrote extensively about child welfare and other social issues.

In 1934, Abbott left the Children’s Bureau due to her declining health and returned to Chicago. She worked at the University of Chicago’s School Service Administration as a professor of public welfare. In addition to her teaching, Abbott still managed to keep her hand in public policy. She helped draft the Social Security Act of 1935 and published her last book, The Child and the State, in 1938.

On June 19, 1939, Grace Abbott died at the home she shared with sister Edith in Chicago. Abbott never married nor had children. Instead she acted as “the foster mother to the nation’s 43 million children” during much of her lifetime, according to the Nebraska State Historical Society.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939) was born May 6, 1856, in a small town Freiberg. His father was a wool merchant (торговец шерстью) with a keen mind (c тонким умом) and a good sense of humor. His mother was a lively woman, her husband’s second wife and 20 years younger. She was 21 years old when she gave birth to her first son, Sigmund. Sigmund had two older half-brothers and six younger siblings (братьев и сестер). When he was four or five the family moved to Vienna, where he lived most of his life,

A brilliant child, always at the head of his class, he went to medical school, where he became involved in research under the direction of a physiology professor Ernst Brucke. Brucke believed in reductionism: “No other forces than the common physical-chemical ones are active within the organism”. Freud concentrated on neurophysiology, but only alimited number of positions at the university were available. Brucke helped him to get a grant to study, first with the great psychiatrist Charcot in Paris, then with Bernheim. Both these gentlemen were investigating the use of hypnosis with hysterics.

After spending a short time as a neurologist and director of a children’s ward (детское отделение) in Berlin, he came back to Vienna, married his patient fiancee (невеста) Martha Bernays, and set up a practice in neuropsychiatry, with the help of Joseph Breuer.

Freud’s books and lectures brought him both fame and ostracism (oстракизм, гонения) from the traditional medical community. He collected around him a number of very bright students who became the core (ядро) of the psychoanalytic movement. Unfortunately, Freud rejected people who did not totally agree with him. Some separated from him on friendly terms; others did not, and continued reheard to found competing schools of thought.

Freud emigrated to England just before World War II when Vienna became an increasing dangerous place for Jews, especially ones as famous as Freud. Not long afterward, he died of the cancer of the mouth and jaw (челюсть) that he had suffered from for the last 20 years of his life.

 

BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER (1904-1990) was born March 20, in the small Pennsylvania town. His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife. His upbringing (воспитание) was old-fashioned and hard-working.

Burrhus was an active, out-going boy who loved the out-doors (свежий воздух) and building things, and enjoyed school.

Burrhus received his BA in English from Hamilton Collegein New York. However, he did not enjoy college life very much. He was an atheist in a school that required daily church attendance (ежедневное посещение церкви).

He wanted to be a writer and did try, sending off poetry and short stories. When he graduated, he built a study (кабинет) in his parents’ attic (чердак) to concentrate.

After some traveling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard. He got his master’s degree in psychology (MA) in 1930 and his doctorate (Ph.D) in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936.

Also in that year, he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. There he met and soon married Yvonne Blue. They had two daughters, the second of which became famous as the first infant to be raised in one of Skinner’s inventions, the air crib (колыбель). Although it was nothing more than a combination of crib and playpen (детский манеж) with glass sides and air conditioning, it looked like keeping a baby in an aquarium.

In 1945, he became the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited to come to Harvard, where he stayed for the rest of his life. He was a very active man, doing research and guiding hundreds of doctoral candidates as well as writing many books. While not successful as a writer of fiction and poetry, he became one of our best psychology writers, including the book Walden II, which is a fictional account of a community run by his behaviorist principles.

August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming one ofthe most famous psychologist after Sigmund Freud.

 

JUNG, CARL GUSTAV (1875-1961) was born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland, in the family of a Protestant clergyman (священника). After graduating in medicine in 1902 from the universities of Basel and Zurich, with a wide background in biology, zoology, paleontology, and archaeology, he began his work on word association, in which a patient’s responses to stimulus words revealed what Jung called “complexes” – a term that has since become universal. These studies brought him international fame and led him to a close collaboration with Freud.

With the publication of Psychology of the Unconscious (1912), however, Jung declared his independence from Freud’s narrowly sexual interpretation of the libido by showing the close parallels between ancient myths and psychotic fantasies and by explaining human motivation in terms of a larger creative energy. He gave up (отказался от) the presidency of the International Psychoanalytic Society and founded a movement called analytical psychology.

During his remaining 50 years Jung developed his theories, drawing on a wide knowledge of mythology and history; on his travels to diverse (разнообразные) cultures in New Mexico, India, and Kenya; and especially, on the dreams and fantasies of his childhood. In 1921 he published a major work, Psychological Types, in which he dealt with the relationship between the conscious and unconscious and proposed the now well-known personality types – extrovert and introvert.

He later made a distinction (сделал различие) between the personal unconscious, or the repressed feelings and thoughts developed during an individual’s life, and the collective unconscious, or those inherited feelings (унаследованные чувства), thoughts, and memories shared by all humanity. The collective unconscious, according to Jung, is made up of what he called “archetypes”. These correspond to such experiences as confronting death or choosing a mate (выбор пары) and manifest themselves symbolically in religions, myths, fairy tales (сказки), and fantasies.

Jung wrote many works on analytical methods and the relationships between psychotherapy and religious belief. He died on June 6, 19.

BARBARA MORGAN

Born in 1951, grammar school teacher Barbara Morgan was the backup candidate for the NASA Teacher in Space program in 1985. The chosen teacher, Christa McAuliffe, died in the 1986 Challenger explosion. Morgan continued with the astronaut corps, finally serving on the Endeavor for an 11-day mission in 2007, making her the first teacher-astronaut to complete a space mission.

Barbara Radding Morgan became the first teacher-astronaut into space when the shuttle Endeavour launched August 8, 2007, on an 11-day mission to the International Space Station. Barbara Morgan was born November 28, 1951, in Fresno, California, to Dr. and Mrs. Jerry Radding. After attending Hoover High School in Fresno, Morgan earned a B.A., with distinction, in human biology from Stanford University. She also obtained a teaching credential from the College of Notre Dame in Belmont, California.

Morgan was originally trained as the backup to “teacher in space” Christa McAuliffe, who died in the 1986 Challenger explosion. Morgan waited in the wings for more than 21 years for an opportunity to fulfill McAuliffe’s mission. She made no public comment as she took her historic, long-delayed ride into space on mission STS-118. Aboard Endeavour, she was load master, responsible for the 5,000 pounds of supplies that was transferred to the station. She also operated the shuttle and station robotic arms during three planned spacewalks. On the seventh day of the mission, she was scheduled to participate in an educational interactive video broadcast with students gathered at the Discovery Center of Idaho in Boise. Morgan planned to teach some of the same lessons that McAuliffe was supposed to teach more than 20 years previous, as part of a wider curriculum.

Morgan began her teaching career in 1974 on the Flathead Indian Reservation, where she taught remedial reading and math at Arlee Elementary School in Arlee, Montana. From 1975-’78, she taught remedial reading/math and second grade at McCall-Donnelly Elementary School in McCall, Idaho. From 1978-’79, Morgan taught English and science to third graders at Colegio Americano de Quito in Quito, Ecuador. And from l979-’98, she taught second, third and fourth grade courses at McCall-Donnelly Elementary School.

Morgan was selected as the backup candidate for the NASA Teacher in Space Project in July 1985. She trained with Christa McAuliffe and the Space Shuttle Challenger crew at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. Following McAuliffe’s death, Morgan returned to teaching before being selected in 1998 as a member of the astronaut corps.

Morgan is married to writer Clay Morgan. They have two sons.

 

LEE STRASBERG (1901-1982)

Born in 1901 in Budzanów, Poland, Austria-Hungary (now Budanov, Ukraine), Lee Strasberg came to the United States at age 7. In the early 1920s, he became an actor and stage manager with the Theatre Guild. In 1931, Strasberg co-founded the Group Theatre, where he directed brilliant experimental plays such as Men in White (1933). After working in Hollywood (1941–1948), he returned to New York City to become artistic director of the Actors Studio.

Born on November 17, 1901, in Budzanów, Poland, Austria-Hungary (now Budanov, Ukraine), Lee Strasberg went on to become one of the top acting teachers of the 20th century. Al Pacino, Sidney Poitier, Paul Newman, Maureen Stapleton and Marlon Brando were among his many students at the Actors Studio in New York City. Strasberg moved to New York with his family in 1909. He first became involved in the theater at the Chrystie Street Settlement House, acting in productions staged there.

Strasberg had a life-changing experience in 1923, when he attended a performance directed by Constantin Stanislavski. The production was part of the Moscow Art Theatre’s American tour, and Stanislavski’s work influenced Strasberg’s entire career path. Around this time, Strasberg began working with the Theatre Guild. He started out as an assistant stage manager and then moved into acting.

After retiring from the stage in 1929, Strasberg soon created his own dramatic organization. He formed the Group Theatre in 1931 with Cheryl Crawford and Harold Clurman. While with the Group Theatre, Strasberg directed numerous plays, including the Pulitzer Prize-winning drama Men in White by Sidney Kingsley. The organization also produced several works by Clifford Odets.

In 1948, Strasberg joined the Actors Studio as a teacher. The studio had been founded the previous year by Elia Kazan, Cheryl Crawford and Robert Lewis. Its aim was to provide theatrical professionals – actors, directors and playwrights – with the opportunity for creative exploration and growth. Strasberg became famous for his approach to acting, which drew from Stanislavski’s techniques.

Strasberg asked his students to engage in what is known as “method” acting – actors call upon their own emotions and experiences and incorporate them into their performances. “The real secret to method acting – which is as old as the theater itself – is creating reality,” Strasberg once said, according to the Boston Globe. “That is tremendously difficult. Some actors think behaving casually is the same thing”.

In the early 1950s, Strasberg became the artistic director of the Actors Studio. He spent more than 30 years leading this creative enterprise, working with such great talents as James Dean, Julie Harris, Jane Fonda and Joanne Woodward. In 1969, Strasberg established the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute.

Strasberg returned to acting in the 1970s. In 1974, he played a Jewish crime figure in Francis Ford Coppola‘s The Godfather: Part II, and received an Academy Award nomination for his supporting role in the film.

Two years later, he appeared with Sophia Loren, Richard Harris and Martin Sheen in the thriller The Cassandra Crossing.

In 1979, Strasberg had one of his few leading film roles. He co-starred with George Burns and Art Carney in the crime caper comedy Going with Style. Even with these forays into film work, Strasberg remained committed to the Actors Studio. He served as the group’s artistic director until his death in 1982. Strasberg died of an apparent attack on February 17 of that year. Thrice married, he was survived by his third wife Anna and his four children, Susan, John, Adam and David.

A few days after his death, Strasberg was remembered at a service at New York’s Shubert Theater. Countless stars from the film and theatrical worlds filled the audience to say goodbye to the acting instructor who inspired and challenged them. Paul Newman, Dustin Hoffman, Anthony Quinn, Shelley Winters and Ben Gazzara were among the mourners.

 

CHRISTA MCAULIFFE was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on September 2, 1948. A high school teacher, she became the first American civilian selected to go into space in 1985. After being selected by NASA in 1985, she trained at the Johnson Space Center. On January 28, 1986, McAuliffe boarded the Challenger space shuttle in Orlando, Florida. The shuttle exploded shortly after lift-off, killing everyone on board.

Born Sharon Christa Corrigan on September 2, 1948, in Boston, Massachusetts, Christa McAuliffe made history in 1985, when she became the first civilian to go on a U.S. space mission. McAuliffe graduated from Marian High School in Framingham, Massachusetts, in 1966, and continued her studies at Framingham State College. There, she received a bachelor’s degree in 1970, and married Steven McAuliffe soon after.

Around this time, McAuliffe began her career as an educator, teaching American history and English to junior high school students in Maryland. She earned a master’s degree in education from Bowie State College in 1978. A short while after earning her degree, McAuliffe and her family moved to New Hampshire. There, she landed a teaching job at a high school in Concord.

McAuliffe was an extraordinary teacher with a dream of riding on the space shuttle. So when the National Aeronautics and Space Administration announced a contest to take a teacher into space, McAuliffe jumped at the chance and applied. She won the contest, beating out more than 11,000 other applicants. Vice President George H.W. Bush delivered the good news at a special ceremony at the White House: He said that McAuliffe was going to be the “first private citizen passenger in the history of space flight,” according to a report in The New York Times.

After NASA announced that they had chosen McAuliffe to go into space, her whole community rallied behind her. McAuliffe saw the space mission as a chance to go on the ultimate field trip. She believed that by participating in the mission she could help students better understand space and how NASA works. She went to the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, for training in September 1985.

On January 28, 1986, McAuliffe’s friends and family, including her two young children, anxiously watched and waited for the Challenger space shuttle to take off from the Kennedy Space Center in Orlando, Florida. Shortly after lift-off, the shuttle exploded. Everyone aboard died, including McAuliffe.

A shocked nation mourned the passing of the seven crew members of the Challenger. President Ronald Reagan spoke of the crew as heroes shortly after the accident. “This America, which Abraham Lincoln called the last, best hope of man on Earth, was built on heroism and noble sacrifice. It was built by men and women like our seven star voyagers, who answered a call beyond duty, who gave more than was expected or required and who gave it little thought of worldly reward,” Reagan stated. NASA spent months analyzing the incident, later determining that problems with the right solid rocket motor had been the primary cause of the disaster.

After her death, this courageous educator received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. As a tribute to her memory, a planetarium in Concord has been named after her as well as an asteroid and a crater on the moon. The Christa Corrigan McAuliffe Center at Framingham State College was established to support teachers and offers science and mathematics programs.

CLARA BARTON (1821-1912) was born on December 25, 1821, in Oxford, Massachusetts. She became a teacher, worked in the U.S. Patent Office and was an independent nurse during the Civil War. While visiting Europe, she worked with a relief organization known as the International Red Cross, and lobbied for an American branch when she returned home. The American Red Cross was founded in 1881, and Barton served as its first president.

Educator, nurse and founder of the American Red Cross Clara Barton was born Clarissa Harlowe Barton on December 25, 1821, in Oxford, Massachusetts. Barton spent much of her life in the service of others and created an organization that still helps people in need today – the American Red Cross.

A shy child, she first found her calling when she tended to her brother David after an accident. Barton later found another outlet for her desire to be helpful as a teenager. She became a teacher at age 15 and later opened a free public school in New Jersey. She moved to Washington, D.C., to work in the U.S. Patent Office as a clerk in the mid-1850s.

During the Civil War, Clara Barton sought to help the soldiers in any way she could. At the beginning, she collected and distributed supplies for the Union Army. Not content sitting on the sidelines, Barton served as an independent nurse and first saw combat in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1862. She also cared for soldiers wounded at Antietam. Barton was nicknamed “the angel of the battlefield” for her work.

After the war ended in 1865, Clara Barton worked for the War Department, helping to either reunite missing soldiers and their families or find out more about those who were missing. She also became a lecturer and crowds of people came to hear her talk about her war experiences.

While visiting Europe, Clara Barton worked with a relief organization known as the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 –’71. Some time after returning home to the United States, she began to lobby for an American branch of this international organization.

The American Red Cross Society was founded in 1881 and Barton served as its first president. As its leader, Clara Barton oversaw assistance and relief work for the victims of such disasters as the 1889 Johnstown Flood and the 1900 Galveston Flood.

Clara Barton resigned from the American Red Cross in 1904 amid an internal power struggle and claims of financial mismanagement. While she was known to be an autocratic leader, she never took a salary for her work within the organization and sometimes used her funds to support relief efforts.

After leaving the Red Cross, Clara Barton remained active, giving speeches and lectures. She also wrote a book entitled The Story of My Childhood, which was published in 1907. Barton died at her home in Glen Echo, Maryland, on April 12, 1912.

 

JILL BIDEN, born on June 5, 1951, spent most of her childhood in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania. Having always enjoyed English classes in high school, Biden pursued an education in English, earning two master’s degrees in the subject and then a doctorate in education from the University of Delaware. Biden has taught at community colleges throughout most of her career, and has been an advocate for community colleges. As the wife of U.S. Vice President Joe Biden, she is America's second lady and has helped raise awareness about supporting military families, education and women’s issues.

While working in a psychiatric hospital – where she taught English to adolescents with emotional disabilities for five years – Biden earned two master’s degrees, from Villanova University and West Chester University. She went on to teach for three years at Claymont High School, and then at Delaware Technical and Community College. Biden also earned her doctorate in education from the University of Delaware in January 2007.

Biden has been a professor of English at Northern Virginia Community College since 2009. In 2010, she hosted the first-ever White House Summit on Community Colleges with President Obama, and continues to work on that outreach on behalf of the administration.

With one of her stepsons in the military, Biden became involved with the nonprofit organization Delaware Boots on the Ground, which helps families during times of military deployment. She also wrote a children’s book, Don’t Forget, God Bless Our Troops, based on her granddaughter’s story of a military family’s experience with deployment. Additionally, Biden co-founded the Book Buddies program.

On November 6, 2012, Joe Biden was re-elected to a second term as vice president with President Barack Obama. After the president’s acceptance speech, Jill Biden appeared with her husband, their family and the Obama family onstage at the McCormick Place in Chicago to celebrate the re-election. She will continue to serve as America’s second lady until 2016.