The use of indefinite article

1. When the speaker presents the object as belonging to a certain class.

It happened in a small town in Siberia.

2. When a person or a thing is introduced for the 1^st time.

This is a car. The car is new.

3. With a predicative noun denoting a profession or characteristic.

He is a doctor.

He brother is a good man.

4. We use a/an in some grammatical structures:

It is a book.

There is a house in a street.

She has a cat.

The use of definite article

1. When the speaker and the listener know what particular object is meant

How did you like the play?

2. When we speak about unique nouns:

The Sun, the Moon, the Earth,

The sun rises in the east.

3. With ordinal numerals.

The 2^nd of May

4. With substantivized adjectives:

The poor -бедные

The rich - богатые

5. With names of rivers

The Irtysh River

The Thames

6. With adjectives in the superlative degree:

The best, the cleverest, the highest

7. With names of oceans

The Pacific Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean

The Indian Ocean

8. With names of mountain chains (тау тізбектері)

The Urals, the Alps

9. With 4 cardinal points of the compass

The south, the east, the west, the north

10. with names of newspapers

The Times, The Ertis oniri

11. With names of museums, parks

The brutish Museum, The central Park

Fill in the indefinite article where necessary

1. When my grandfather was a … young man, he studied 0 physics

2. My father speaks 0 English and French but he does not speak 0 German

3. He is going to have a rest

4. When we want to write a letter, we take a piece of 0paper and a pen

5. We are going 100 km an hour

 

Fill in the definite article where article where necessary.

1. 0 Moscow is situated on the Moscow river

2. The most important is the Hudson River which empties into t he Atlantic ocean

3. Gogol was born in the Ukraine in 0 1809

4. Let’s go to the shop. I must buy 0 bread and 0 milk.

5. Swift, the famous English writer, was travelling one day on 0 horseback with his servants.

 

Adjective

The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun. Adjectives can express qualities ( large, modern, and quiet ), physical and emotional states (cold, busy, friendly, happy), origin (American, Asian), opinions (excellent, fantastic, cool), frequency ( weekly, daily, regular ).

All adjectives fall into two groups — qualitative and relative.

Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly (great, calm, gold, beautiful).

Relative adjectives describe proper­ties of a substance through relation to material (woolen, wooden, golden) to place (Italian, European), to time (ancient, contemporary).

According to their morphological composition adjectives can be simple, derived/derivative, compound.

 

Simple	Derivative	Compound
good red new unkind	beautiful foolish hopeless four-wheeled	snow-white deaf-mute cold-hearted

 

ADJECTIVES FORMED WITH SUFFIXES:

 

Many adjectives related to verbs or nouns have a characteristic ending (or suffix): We enjoyed the party. – The party was very enjoyable.

-able (capable of being) manageable

-ful (full of) boastful

-ic energetic

-ive (capable of being) attractive

- ant hesitant

-ible (like – able) permissible, likeable

-(i)an (historical period, etc.) Victorian

-ish (having the quality of) foolish, selfish

-ly (having this quality) friendly

-ous humorous

- al occasional

And note –ing forms used as adjectives: running water.

 

ADJECTIVES FORMED WITH PREFIXES:

prefix (e.g. im-) added to an adjective generally has a negative effect:

I think it’s possible to solve the problem. I think it’s impossible to solve the problem.

Un- uncooked, unimaginable

in- incapable, inhuman

il- illegal, illegible

im- immoral, impractical

dis- dishonest, disagreeable

ir- irresponsible, irregular

And note pre- (pre-war) and hyper- (hyperactive), which do not create opposites but modify the meaning of the word in some way.

 

THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMMON COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS:

Adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative and the superlative degree. The adjective expressing some quality without comparison is said to be in the positive degree. An equal degree is expressed with the help of the conjunctions: as... as, not as (so)... as in negative sentences.

She is as old as I am.

He isn’t as clever as she is.

We use the comparative when comparing one person or thing with another. We use the superlative when comparing one person or thing with more than one.

The comparative and the superlative degrees of comparison are formed in the synthetic, analytic and suppletive ways.

The synthetic degrees of comparison are formed by adding the inflexion –er, -est (fine — finer — finest) to the adjectives having one or two syllables. The more recent trend is: happy — more happy — most happy.

The analytic degrees are formed by means of «more» and «most» (difficult — more difficult — most difficult).

Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly, in the suppletive way when some other words are used to build up the forms.

Good — better — best,

bad — worse — worst,

little — less — least,

many/much — more — most

The Adverb

The adverb is a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or modify an action, state, or quality.

 

Morphological composition

Adverbs vary in their structure. There are simple, derived, compound, and composite adverb.

Simple adverbs are after, here well now, soon, etc.

In derived adverbs the most common suffix is – ly, by means of which new adverbs are coined from adjectives and participles: occasionally, lately, immediately, constantly, purely, slowly, charmingly.

The less common suffixes are the following:

-wise clock wise, crab wise, corkscrew- wise, education - wise

-ward(s) on ward(s), back ward(s), home ward(s), east ward(s)

-fold two fold, mani fold

- like war like

- most inner most, outer most

- way(s) long ways, side ways

Of these suffixes the first two are more productive than the rest.

Compound adverbs are formed of two stems:

Sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc.

Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word- forms, as

a great deal, a little bit, for enough, now and then, from time to

time, sort of, kind of, a hell of, a lot of, a great deal of.

Morphological characteristics

The adverb has three degrees of comparison. The three grades are called positive, comparative, and superlative degrees.

Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections following the same spelling and phonetic rules as for adjectives.

early - earlier- earliest

late - later- latest

hard - harder- hardest

slow – slower – slowest

Several adverbs ending in – ly (quickly, loudly) form comparatives according to the same pattern, dropping their adverb – forming suffix. These adverbs acquired the form in – ly only recently and retained the older forms of the comparative and superlative:

quickly – quicker – quickest

loudly – louder - loudest

However most disyllabic adverbs in – ly and all polysyllabic ones form the comparative and superlative analytically, by means of more and most:

wisely – more wisely – most wisely

softly – more softly – most softly

deeply – more deeply – most deeply

The adverb often occurs with both types of comparison:

oftener

often {

more often

As with adjectives, there is a small group of adverbs with comparatives and superlatives formed from different stems (superlative forms). These comparatives and superlatives are identical with those for the corresponding adjectives and can be differentiated from the latter only syntactically.

Well –better – best

Badly- worse – worst

Little – les – least

Further – furthest

Far

Farther – farthest

Which do you like best?

This is least painful for you.

Semantic characteristics

According to their meaning adverbs fall into many groups.

Here are the main ones:

Adverb of place: outside, there, in front etc

Adverb of time include those denoting duration (long, continually), interval (all day), timing (yesterday, today, recently, lately, immediately, once, at once, now), frequency (often, now and then, occasionally). Several of them denote an indefinite time – soon, yet, always, already, never, ever.

Adverb of manner: well, carefully, intentionally, silently, clearly, etc.

Adverb of degree: thoroughly, very, much, completely, quite, rather, a lot, a little, a great deal, badly, greatly, hardly, barely, scarcely, narrowly, just, almost, mostly, enormously, largely, tremendously, keenly, somewhat, too, so, most, all but.

THE NUMERAL

The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of thing in succession.

In accordance with this distinction the numerals fall into two groups cardinal numerals (cardinals) and ordinal numerals (ordinals).

 

Cardinals Ordinals

One 1st the first

2 two 2^nd the second

Three 3rd the third

4 four 4th the four th

5 five 5 th the fifth

100 one (a) hundred 100th the (one) hundredt

 

All ordinals are formed by adding the suffix ‘th’ to the cardinals except 1,2,3. And answer the question ‘which’, ‘what’

Which month is it now?

What date is it today?

 

The Cardinals

Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words.

The cardinals from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those from thirteen to nineteen are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -teen; the cardinals denoting fens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -ty.

The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those over hundred are compounds.

21 - twenty-one, 35 - thirty-five, 72 - seventy-two, etc.

103 - one hundred and three.

 

The ordinals

Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and compound words.

The simple ordinals are first, second and third.

The derivative ordinals are derived from the simple and derivative cardinals by means of the suffix -th:

four-fourth, ten-tenth, sixteen-sixteenth, twenty-twentieth, etc.

Before the suffix -th the final у is replaced by ie:

thirty - thirtieth, etc.

The compound ordinals are formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the last component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal:

twenty-first, forty-second, sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.

Indefinite tenses

The Present Indefinite

Formation. The present Indefinite tense is formed by the Infinitive of the notional verb without the particle ‘to’ for the 1^st person Singular and plural –I go, we go, 2^nd person Singular and plural you go, 3^rd person plural-they go.

+I go to school. affirmative form synthetic way.

Some of the forms of the present indefinite are synthetic (affirmative forms), some – analytic (interrogative and negative forms).

?Do you go to school? Analytic form = auxiliary verb + notional verb

-I do not go school.

The 3^rd person singular form is built from the same stem by means of the inflexion –s, - es: to speak – he speaks.

As can be seen from the above examples, the pronunciation and spelling of the inflection of the 3^rd person singular vary:

1. Verbs ending in vowels and voiced consonants take the inflection –s which pronounced [z]: to see – he sees, to play – he plays, have – has

2. Verb stems ending in sibilants and affricates take either the inflection –s or –es. Both are pronounced [iz]: -es if the final letters of the stem are –s, -sh, -ss, -ch, -tch: to push – he pushes, to box – boxes.

The interrogative form is built by means of the auxiliary verb ‘do,does’ + the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle ‘to’

Where do you go? (Special question)

Do you go to school? (general question)

Negative form

I do not go to school.

She does not …

The negative form is built by means of the auxiliary verb ‘do,does’ + the negative particle ‘not’+ the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle ‘to’

The Present Indefinite may denote:

1. A permanent action (a fact) She speaks English.

2. The general truth Vegetables grow well in this climate.

3. A repeated, customary action The Browns go to the seaside every summer.

4. A future action if planned beforehand The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.

 

The Past Indefinite Tense

Formation. The affirmative forms of the past indefinite are synthetic; the interrogative, negative and negative – interrogative forms are analytic.

Affirmative (synthetic) forms are represented by the second of the basic verb forms.

I came home late yesterday.

You came.

She came

We use the same form for all persons.

Interrogative forms are built by means of the auxiliary to do in the past indefinite (did) and the infinitive stem of the notional verb.

Did you come home late yesterday?

Yes, I did.

Where did you come late yesterday?

When did you come home late? Yesterday.

The negative form is built by means of the auxiliary verb ‘to do’ in the past indefinite ‘did’ + the negative particle ‘not’+ the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle ‘to’

I did not come home late yesterday

You did not ……

I did not go to school.

She did not …