Американский трансцендентализм.

Раскройте особенности американского трансцендентализма.

Стремление к единству с природой, критика капитализма и демократии. Социальная доктрина «фермы» — возвращение к природе, земледельческий труд, сознательное ограничение потребностей. Порокам социального развития Америки они противопоставляют свой романтический идеал — нравственно-философскую утопию, построенную на принципах свободы личности, любви и дружбы, гармонии природы и человека.

Назовите основных представителей.

Эмерсон, Торо, Уитмен

Имеет ли американский трансцендентализм общее с немецким идеализмом и романтизмом как литературным направлением

Да. Наибольшее значение для выработки представлений трансценденталистов о мире и путях познания оказали идеи Якоби, Шеллинга, Фихте.. При этом немецкие философские концепции воспринимались в США через посредничество их английских интерпретаторов, в первую очередь, Колриджа и Карлейля.

Имеет ли место увлечение восточной философией?

Приведите пример.

Многие идеи Эмерсона берут свое начало из восточных религий - буддизма, ислама, учения Конфуция, которые писатель прилежно изучал. Например, его стихотворение "Брама" основано на индусских источниках и утверждает идею некоего космического порядка, недоступного пониманию смертных:

Убийца считает, что он убил, А его жертва

считает себя мертвой. Они не видят тонких

путей, По которым я бреду и вновь возвращаюсь на

круги своя.

Далекое и забытое стоят рядом,

Тень и луч солнца - одно и то же;

Мне являются исчезнувшие боги,

Позор и слава - одно и то же.

Связан ли американский трансцендентализм с учением о ненасилии. Приведите пример. Раскройте отношение американских трансценденталистов к природе.

Генри Торо написал труд «Уолден,Жизнь в лесу» Ральф Эмерсон написал работу «О природе». В этих работах раскрыта тема о принципе ненасилия, а по средством природы достигается гармония.

Определите источник. Выразите основную идею.

"Наш век обращен в прошлое. Он строит склепы своим предкам. Он пишет биографии, истории, критические статьи. Прошлые поколения созерцали Бога и Природу; они смотрели в глаза друг другу. Мы же смотрим на все теперь их взглядом. Почему мы не способны наслаждаться нашей изначальной связью со Вселенной? Почему мы не можем иметь поэзию интуитивную, поэзию внутреннего видения, а довольствуемся поэзией традиционной? Где та религия, которая стала бы для нас откровением, а не только историей религий? Нас окружает могущественная природа, на смену одним временам года приходят другие. Потоки жизни бурлят и проносятся сквозь нас; своей силой они зовут нас к действию, соразмерному с силой природы. Так почему мы должны бродить на ощупь среди истлевших костей прошлого? Вот сегодня тоже ярко светит солнце, в полях все больше колосьев. Есть новые страны, новые люди, новые мысли. Так давайте займемся нашей собственной работой, нашими собственными законами, нашим собственным служением Богу".

Эмерсон – трактат «Природа». Человечество утратило связь с миром по средством отказа от природных истоков. В прошлом предки смотрели природе глаза в глаза. Сейчас мы утратили способность наслаждаться нашей первоначальной связью со вселенной. Нужно окунуться в потоки жизни, чья сила соразмерна с силой природы.

«Our age is retrospective. It builds the sepulchres of the fathers. It writes biographies, histories, and criticism. The foregoing generations beheld God and nature face to face; we, through their eyes. Why should not we also enjoy an original relation to the universe? Why should not we have a poetry and philosophy of insight and not of tradition, and a religion by revelation to us, and not the history of theirs? Embosomed for a season in nature, whose floods of life stream around and through us, and invite us by the powers they supply, to action proportioned to nature, why should we grope among the dry bones of the past, or put the living generation into masquerade out of its faded wardrobe? The sun shines to-day also. There is more wool and flax in the fields. There are new lands, new men, new thoughts. Let us demand our own works and laws and worship.

Undoubtedly we have no questions to ask which are unanswerable. We must trust the perfection of the creation so far, as to believe that whatever curiosity the order of things has awakened in our minds, the order of things can satisfy. Every man's condition is a solution in hieroglyphic to those inquiries he would put. He acts it as life, before he apprehends it as truth. In like manner, nature is already, in its forms and tendencies, describing its own design. Let us interrogate the great apparition, that shines so peacefully around us. Let us inquire, to what end is nature?

All science has one aim, namely, to find a theory of nature. We have theories of races and of functions, but scarcely yet a remote approach to an idea of creation. We are now so far from the road to truth, that religious teachers dispute and hate each other, and speculative men are esteemed unsound and frivolous. But to a sound judgment, the most abstract truth is the most practical. Whenever a true theory appears, it will be its own evidence. Its test is, that it will explain all phenomena. Now many are thought not only unexplained but inexplicable; as language, sleep, madness, dreams, beasts, sex.

Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature and the Soul. Strictly speaking, therefore, all that is separate from us, all which Philosophy distinguishes as the NOT ME, that is, both nature and art, all other men and my own body, must be ranked under this name, NATURE. In enumerating the values of nature and casting up their sum, I shall use the word in both senses; -- in its common and in its philosophical import. In inquiries so general as our present one, the inaccuracy is not material; no confusion of thought will occur. Nature, in the common sense, refers to essences unchanged by man; space, the air, the river, the leaf. Art is applied to the mixture of his will with the same things, as in a house, a canal, a statue, a picture. But his operations taken together are so insignificant, a little chipping, baking, patching, and washing, that in an impression so grand as that of the world on the human mind, they do not vary the result.

………

To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society. I am not solitary whilst I read and write, though nobody is with me. But if a man would be alone, let him look at the stars. The rays that come from those heavenly worlds, will separate between him and what he touches. One might think the atmosphere was made transparent with this design, to give man, in the heavenly bodies, the perpetual presence of the sublime. Seen in the streets of cities, how great they are! If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how would men believe and adore; and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every night come out these envoys of beauty, and light the universe with their admonishing smile.

The stars awaken a certain reverence, because though always present, they are inaccessible; but all natural objects make a kindred impression, when the mind is open to their influence. Nature never wears a mean appearance. Neither does the wisest man extort her secret, and lose his curiosity by finding out all her perfection. Nature never became a toy to a wise spirit. The flowers, the animals, the mountains, reflected the wisdom of his best hour, as much as they had delighted the simplicity of his childhood.

When we speak of nature in this manner, we have a distinct but most poetical sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made by manifold natural objects. It is this which distinguishes the stick of timber of the wood-cutter, from the tree of the poet. The charming landscape which I saw this morning, is indubitably made up of some twenty or thirty farms. Miller owns this field, Locke that, and Manning the woodland beyond. But none of them owns the landscape. There is a property in the horizon which no man has but he whose eye can integrate all the parts, that is, the poet. This is the best part of these men's farms, yet to this their warranty-deeds give no title.

To speak truly, few adult persons can see nature. Most persons do not see the sun. At least they have a very superficial seeing. The sun illuminates only the eye of the man, but shines into the eye and the heart of the child. The lover of nature is he whose inward and outward senses are still truly adjusted to each other; who has retained the spirit of infancy even into the era of manhood. His intercourse with heaven and earth, becomes part of his daily food. In the presence of nature, a wild delight runs through the man, in spite of real sorrows. Nature says, -- he is my creature, and maugre all his impertinent griefs, he shall be glad with me. Not the sun or the summer alone, but every hour and season yields its tribute of delight; for every hour and change corresponds to and authorizes a different state of the mind, from breathless noon to grimmest midnight. Nature is a setting that fits equally well a comic or a mourning piece. In good health, the air is a cordial of incredible virtue. Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, at twilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts any occurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfect exhilaration.I am glad to the brink of fear. In the woods too, a man casts off his years, as the snake his slough, and at what period soever of life, is always a child. In the woods, is perpetual youth. Within these plantations of God, a decorum and sanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed, and the guest sees not how he should tire of them in a thousand years. In the woods, we return to reason and faith. There I feel that nothing can befall me in life, -- no disgrace, no calamity, (leaving me my eyes,) which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground, -- my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, -- all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God. The name of the nearest friend sounds then foreign and accidental: to be brothers, to be acquaintances, -- master or servant, is then a trifle and a disturbance. I am the lover of uncontained and immortal beauty.In the wilderness, I find something more dear and connate than in streets or villages. In the tranquil landscape, and especially in the distant line of the horizon, man beholds somewhat as beautiful as his own nature.

Эмерсон «Природа» - Челвек находит новый источник силы, энергии, жизни в природе. Человек - создание природы, её дитя. Он развивается в гармонии с ней. Но взрослые люди к природе не возвращаются. Как правило..

Ральф Эмерсон написал труд «Природа». Генри Торо написал «Прогулки» и «Жизнь в лесу». Ральф Эмерсон изначально был приходским священником, но впоследствии читал лекции и посвятил себя литературному творчеству. Генри Торо некоторое время был садовником у Р.Эмерсона, жил в уединении. Два года жил в деревянной хижине в лесу в живописной местности в Уолдене. Печатали его сочинения в местных журналах. Кому из низ принадлежит следующий текст? Выразите основную идею.

«I wish to speak a word for Nature, for absolute Freedom and Wildness, as contrasted with a Freedom and Culture merely civil,—to regard man as an inhabitant, or a part and parcel of Nature, rather than a member of society. I wish to make an extreme statement, if so I may make a emphatic one, for there are enough champions of civilization; the minister, and the school-committee, and every one of you will take care of that.

I have met with but one or two persons in the course of my life who understood the art of Walking, that is, of taking walks, who had a genius, so to speak, for sauntering; which word is beautifully derived "from idle people who roved about the country, in the middle ages, and asked charity, under pretence of going à la Sainte Terre"—to the holy land, till the children exclaimed, "There goes a Sainte-Terrer", a saunterer—a holy-lander. They who never go to the holy land in their walks, as they pretend, are indeed mere idlers and vagabonds, but they who do go there are saunterers in the good sense, such as I mean. Some, however, would derive the word from sans terre, without land or a home, which, therefore, in the good sense, will mean, having no particular home, but equally at home everywhere. For this is the secret of successful sauntering. He who sits still in a house all the time may be the greatest vagrant of all, but the Saunterer, in the good sense, is no more vagrant than the meandering river, which is all the while sedulously seeking the shortest course to the sea. But I prefer the first, which indeed is the most probable derivation. For every walk is a sort of crusade, preached by some Peter the Hermit in us, to go forth and reconquer this holy land from the hands of the Infidels.

It is true, we are but faint hearted crusaders, even the walkers, now-a-days, who undertake no persevering never ending enterprises. Our expeditions are but tours and come round again at evening to the old hearth side from which we set out. Half the walk is but retracing our steps. We should go forth on the shortest walk, perchance, in the spirit of undying adventure, never to return; prepared to send back our embalmed hearts only, as relics to our desolate kingdoms. If you are ready to leave father and mother, and brother and sister, and wife and child and friends, and never see them again; if you have paid your debts, and made your will, and settled all your affairs, and are a free man; then you are ready for a walk.»

Генри Торо – Жизнь в лесу. Свобода есть способность отказаться от прежних ценностей, порвать связи с прошлым и отправиться в Путь. Только свободный от материальных трат человек может позволить себе продвижение.