Section I intonation and its functions

Section I INTONATION AND ITS FUNCTIONS

 

Effective communication depends on such features of speech as variations in the pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre of the voice. These prosodic features are called intonation-the basic unit of speech. Intonation has a number of important communicative functions.

1. The first function of intonation is the delimiting one. It is called so, because intonation delimits utterances and parts of utterances in the speech flow. From the point of view of the listener, connected speech is a chain of semantic blocks. Each of the blocks has some prosodic features organized into a certain prosodic structure. In other words, each of the semantic blocks presents a prosodic, or intonation, unit. As far as such a unit often comprises a group of words, it is usually defined as an intonation group. E.g.:

'Go ^. down 'Regent /Street | to 'Picadilly /Circus | and 'then go ^. down ^\Haymarket.

An intonation-group with the highest degree of semantic completeness is perceived as a complete utterance. E.g.:

I 'haven't 'seen him since ^\Friday.

 

2. The division of an utterance into intonation-groups in English, as in other languages, is connected with the semantic and syntactic relations between the words in it. Sometimes it is only through the placement of intonation boundaries (markers of intonation division) that the actual kind of relationship is revealed in oral speech. E.g.:

Jane, | said her mother, | was fond of knitting. Jane said, | her mother was fond of knitting.

So, it is possible to say that the delimiting function of intonation (prosody) often becomes grammatical (syntactic).

3. Apart from indicating boundaries both between utterances and within them, intonation signals the central point of information, marking more and less important elements within the utterance through contrasts in the degree of prominence. This function of intonation is called accentual. Compare, e.g.:

a) - I want this letter to be sent tomorrow.

- All right, I'll take ^\ care of that.

b) - Will anyone send this letter tomorrow?

- ^\I'll take care of that.

4. Another important function of intonation is to show the aim of communi­cation, i.e. to indicate the communicative type (a statement, a question, an imperative, an exclamation) or subtype of an utterance (e.g. a reply or an announcement within a statement; an instruction or an order within an imperative, an alternative question with a complete/incomplete list of choices or a certainty/uncertainty disjunctive question within interrogative utterances). This is the attitudinal, or modal-emotional, function of intonation.

Often, intonation is the only marker of the speaker's communicative intent.

Tra^|falgar ^\ Square, (a statement: an announcement or a reply)

Tra^|falgar / Square? (a question asking for repetition, expressing disbelief, etc.)

Intonation has an important role in conveying the speaker's attitude to the subject matter and to the speech situation, as well as his relations with the listener and his emotional state at the moment of communication.

 

a) Did ^|Mozart ^|ever "write an /opera? (neutral, light)

b) Did ^|Mozart ^|ever "write an \opera? (sceptical, doubtful)

 

Section II COMPONENTS OF INTONATION (PROSODY).

UTTERANCE-STRESS

Section III ENGLISH RHYTHM

 

Unit 2. The Influence of Rhythm

Section IV. THE PITCH COMPONENT OF INTONATION

(PROSODY)

Section V. BASIC NUCLEAR TONES

B. Types of Heads

 

1. The Stepping (Gradually Descending Stepping) Head – is characterized by a descending overall contour. Each fully stressed syllable beginning with the second is lower in pitch than the preceding one. Unstressed and partially stressed syllables are said on the same pitch as the preceding fully stressed syllable.

* ^|Let’s have a ^|look at this ^|amazing ^\photo.

This type of head may be used with any nuclear tone (Rising, Falling, Falling-rising, Rising-Falling). It is sometimes called the most typical (normal) kind of head in English.

The function -the Stepping Head is common for: 1) reading aloud; 2) formal conversation; 3) lecturing, etc.

2. The High Head – all the syllables in this type of head are said on the same rather high pitch. There is only one fully stressed syllable on the first important word.

* ^|Mike is ^. always ^. making the same ^\mistake.

The function -the High Head is common for conversation.

 

3. The Broken Descending Stepping Head – is characterized by an upward break somewhere in the middle of the head, after witch a downward movement is continued.

The effect of an upward break is achievedby pronouncing one of the stressed syllables on rather a higher pitch-level than the preceding one. The break is usually made on any fully stressed syllable beginning with the third.

* He has ^|told the ^. story ^. about it ^|hundreds of ^|times to ^\all of us. – In this example the word “ hundreds ” is pronounced on rather a higher pitch-level than the preceding one, after witch a downward movement is continued.

 

The function -the Broken Descending Stepping Head is usedin order to avoid the monotonous effect ofthe Stepping Head within an intonation-group that contains more than 3 stressed syllables.

The upward break is usually made on semantically important words which express an unusual degree of quantity or quality, some extraordinary, unexpected actions (thousands, millions; much, too, very, extremely, absolutely; awful, fantastic; to shout, to scream, etc.)

 

4. The Ascending Stepping Head – the first fully stressed syllable is said on a low pitch, while each following fully stressed syllable begins higher than the preceding one. Unstressed syllables are pronounced on the same pitch as the preceding stressed syllable to which they are attached.

* I’ve _|told you ^|about it ^|many ^\times.

The Ascending Stepping Head is typically combined with the nuclear high falling and high rising tones. As a result of the increased weight of the nuclear word (the word “times” in the given example) the Ascending Stepping Head makes the listener pay more attention to the end of the utterance.

The function -the Ascending Stepping Head is often used to show the feeling of impatience, surprise, protest, disbelief, enthusiastic approval, support, etc.

5. The Low Head – all the syllables (stressed and unstressed) are pronounced on a low pitch. Prominence on the relevant syllables in this type of head is achieved by a greater force of articulation and longer duration.

* I’ll _|look through the _|letters _|tomorrow /morning.

The most frequent nuclear tones after the Low Head are the Low Fall and the Low Rise.

The function -the Low Head is often used to show a cool, phlegmatic, disinterested or disapproving attitude.

6. The Sliding Head -is formed by a sequence of slides, i.e. downward pitch movements on each fully stressed syllable of the head.

*I’ll never ^. go there again whatever you \/ say.

 

In the Descending Sliding Head each preceding stressed syllable starts on a higher pitch than the following one. The first full stress is made on the highest pitch. This type of head (unlike the Gradually Descending Stepping Head) has a jumpy, or wave-like, character. Partially stressed syllables in the given type of head gradually carry the pitch down. This type of head is most frequently combined with the Falling-Rising Tone.

The function -the Sliding Head is often used in lively, expressive conversation and in reading emotionally coloured texts.

 

7. The Scandent Head -is formed by a sequence of upward pitch-changes on each of the stressed syllables which are indicated with an upward arrow (]m). These upward pitch movements are realized either inside the stressed syllable (when no unstressed syllables follow) or on the unstressed syllables which are then pronounced on a higher pitch than the preceding stressed syllable. Partial stresses in the given type of head behave in the same way as the unstressed syllables: they continue the rise of the voice initiated on the preceding stressed syllable.

The initial points of the stressed syllables most typically take the same level above or below the middle of the voice-range (the Level Scandent Head). E.g.:

I'd ]rather ]do it my^\self.

The stressed syllables may also form a descending or an ascending contour (the Descending Scandent Head and the Ascending Scandent Head, respectively).

Utterances pronounced with the Scandent Head sound lively and expressive. The exact modal connotation depends on the nuclear tone and the communicative type of an utterance. Combined with the High Rise in general questions the Scandent Head often expresses surprise and incredulity. E.g.:

- I've been at the football match today.

- ]Haven't you ]'been at the / library?

Combined with the Low Rise in imperative utterances this head has a reassuring, encouraging meaning and is often used in speaking to children. E.g.:

]Don't for]get you must ]share with /Jimmy.

The Scandent Head before a falling nuclear tone may express the speaker's irritation or, vice versa, cheerfulness and interest (the exact meaning is always clear from the context). E.g.:

]I ]hate ]'doing ^\nothing.

It's a ]useful ]thing to re^\member.

 

Section I INTONATION AND ITS FUNCTIONS

 

Effective communication depends on such features of speech as variations in the pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre of the voice. These prosodic features are called intonation-the basic unit of speech. Intonation has a number of important communicative functions.

1. The first function of intonation is the delimiting one. It is called so, because intonation delimits utterances and parts of utterances in the speech flow. From the point of view of the listener, connected speech is a chain of semantic blocks. Each of the blocks has some prosodic features organized into a certain prosodic structure. In other words, each of the semantic blocks presents a prosodic, or intonation, unit. As far as such a unit often comprises a group of words, it is usually defined as an intonation group. E.g.:

'Go ^. down 'Regent /Street | to 'Picadilly /Circus | and 'then go ^. down ^\Haymarket.

An intonation-group with the highest degree of semantic completeness is perceived as a complete utterance. E.g.:

I 'haven't 'seen him since ^\Friday.

 

2. The division of an utterance into intonation-groups in English, as in other languages, is connected with the semantic and syntactic relations between the words in it. Sometimes it is only through the placement of intonation boundaries (markers of intonation division) that the actual kind of relationship is revealed in oral speech. E.g.:

Jane, | said her mother, | was fond of knitting. Jane said, | her mother was fond of knitting.

So, it is possible to say that the delimiting function of intonation (prosody) often becomes grammatical (syntactic).

3. Apart from indicating boundaries both between utterances and within them, intonation signals the central point of information, marking more and less important elements within the utterance through contrasts in the degree of prominence. This function of intonation is called accentual. Compare, e.g.:

a) - I want this letter to be sent tomorrow.

- All right, I'll take ^\ care of that.

b) - Will anyone send this letter tomorrow?

- ^\I'll take care of that.

4. Another important function of intonation is to show the aim of communi­cation, i.e. to indicate the communicative type (a statement, a question, an imperative, an exclamation) or subtype of an utterance (e.g. a reply or an announcement within a statement; an instruction or an order within an imperative, an alternative question with a complete/incomplete list of choices or a certainty/uncertainty disjunctive question within interrogative utterances). This is the attitudinal, or modal-emotional, function of intonation.

Often, intonation is the only marker of the speaker's communicative intent.

Tra^|falgar ^\ Square, (a statement: an announcement or a reply)

Tra^|falgar / Square? (a question asking for repetition, expressing disbelief, etc.)

Intonation has an important role in conveying the speaker's attitude to the subject matter and to the speech situation, as well as his relations with the listener and his emotional state at the moment of communication.

 

a) Did ^|Mozart ^|ever "write an /opera? (neutral, light)

b) Did ^|Mozart ^|ever "write an \opera? (sceptical, doubtful)