The Dawn of the British History

НЫШАНОВА С.Т.

БҰҚАБАЕВА Б.Е.

ТҮРКІСТАН 2011

Пән сипаттамасы

Елтану курсыныњ маќсаты-студенттерге µздері тілін ‰йренетін ел туралы толыќ мєлімет беру,оларды осы елдіњ тарихи,географиялыќ,ќоѓамдыќ саяси µзгешілігін ќамтитын білім кешенімен ќаруландыру.

Ағылшын тілі мамандарын түгелімен дерлік мектепте, жоғары мектепте немесе т.б. орындарда ағылшын тілін оқыту, ұстаз болып адам төрбиелеу, педагогикалық сала жолдары күтіп тұр. Сонымен қатар оқып жатқан тілде сөйлейтін мемлекеттердін мекен жайы туралы,т±рмыс шындыѓы,тарихы,мєдениеті айтылады. Сол елдердің саясаты,оқу процессі да талқыланады.Ќазіргі кезде шетел тілін оќытыу процесі негізінде елтану ‰станымы алынады.Осы ±станымѓа с‰йене отырып,шетел тілін оќыту ‰йренетін тіл елініњ б‰кіл мєдени кењістігін оныњ барлыќ ерекшеліктерімен жєне ќарама-ќарсылыѓымен,±лттыќ жєне аймаќтыќ тењдесіз ерекшелігімен ќоса ќамтиды.

1.2Қойылған мақсаттарға жету үшін мына міндеттерді шешу ұсынылады:

: 1. Студенттерді АҚШ және Ұлы Британияның мекен жайымен таныстыру; 2. АҚШ және Ұлы Британияның мектепте және жоғары оқу орындарында оқу еңбегі мәдениетін меңгеруге жәрдемдесу;3.Осы елдердің саясатын айқындап түсіндіру;4.тілін ‰йренетін елдердіњ мєдени салт-дєст‰рлері туралы білімдерін ќалыптастыру.

-елтану курсын µткеннен кейін студенттер білуге тиіс:

-елтануды оќу нысанын жєне оныњ басќа ѓылымдармен байланысын;

-тілдін ‰йренетін елдіњ физикалыќ жєне экономикалыќ географиясын;

-тілін ‰йренетін елдіњ ќалыптасу тарихын;

-қогамдыќ саяси ќ±рылысын;

-салт-дєст‰р,єдет-ѓ±рып,±лттыќ мейрамдары мен рєміздерін.

1.3Елтану пәнін меңгеру нәтижесінде студенттер:

-тілін үйренетін елде болып жатқан саяси,әлеуметтік және мәдени процестерді талдап,жинақтап қорта;

- тілін оқып отырған ел мен Қазақстан Республикасы халықтарының салт-дәстүрлері мен әдет-ғұрыптарын салыстырып,олардың ортақ және ерекше жақтарын айқындайды;

- алған білімдері мен дағдыларынмәдениетаралық қатынас жағдайында асыра алулары керек.

Lecture 1

 

The Dawn of the British History

1. Primitive society on the territory of the British Isles

2. Roman Britain

3. Establishment of the feudal system in Britain in the early middles ages (5-11 centuries).

4. Establishment of the Kingdom of England.

5. The kingdom of England in the 10-11 century.

6. Norman Conquest of England.

Roman Britain.

Roman Empire.

In the 1 century B.C. when the in habitants of the British Isles were still living under the primitive communal system, the Roman Empire became the strongest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean.

It was the last and greatest of civilization of the ancient world. The Romans ruled all of the civilized world and 1 century A.D. they conquered Britain. Britain was a province of the Roman Empire for about four centuries.

While the Celts were still living in tribes the Romans were the most powerful people in the world. Roman society differed greatly from that of the Celts. It was a slave society divided into antagonistic classes. The main classes were the slaves and the slave owners.

The slave-owners made up the minority of the population but they owned the land, tools, buildings and slaves. The slaves possessed neither land nor tools & were themselves the property of the slave-owners.

The Roman conquered all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. In the wars in which Rome gained one province after another for the empire, many thousands of prisoners were taken. They were sold at the slave-market at Rome. Slaves were so cheap that all the Romans except the poorest had one or more,& rich slave-owners possessed hundreds of them. In the 1 B.C. & in the 1 A.D. slavery spread widely in the Roman Empire.

2)The Roman Conquest of Britain.

One of the last countries to be conquered by Rome was France, or Gaul as it was then called. The war against the Gauls, who were Celtic tribes, lasted for eight year. Julius Caesar was appointed Head of the Roman army which was sent to conquer Gaul. In the course of his campaigns Caesar reached the Channel & that was how the Romans came to see the white cliffs of the land of the British Celts.

In 55 B.C. a Roman army of 10.000 men crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. The Celts saw their ships approaching & rushed to attack the invaders in the sea as they were landing. The Celts made a great impression on the Romans, who saw them for the first time in battle.

In the next year, 54 B.C. Caesar again came to Britain, this time with larger forces (25000 men).

The Romans who had better arms & were much better trained defeated the Celts in several battles. At last Roman army invaded Britain and conquered the South-East. Other parts of the country were taken from time to time during the next forty years.

Roman influence in Britain.

As a result of the conquest signs of Roman civilization spread over Britain. There had been no towns in Britain before the Romans conquered it. The civilized Romans were city dwellers and as soon as they had conquered Britain they began to build towns, splendid villas, public bath as in Rome itself.York, Gloucester, Lincoln and London became the chief Roman towns. London which had been a small trading settlement before the conquest now became a center for trade both by road and river. The Roman towns were military stations surrounded by walls for defense which were guarded by the Roman warriors.

Together with a high civilization the Romans brought exploitation and slavery to the British Isles.

Among the Celts themselves inequality began to grow. The tribal chiefs and nobility became richer than other members of the tribe. Many of them became officials acting for Rome. The noble Celts adopted the mode of life of their conquerors. They lived in rich houses and they dressed as Romans. They were proud to wear the toga which was the sign of being a Roman citizen.

The names of many modern English towns are of Latin origin too. The Roman towns were strongly fortified and they were called Castro which means "camps». This word can be recognized in various forms in such names as Chester, Winchester,Manchester, Don caster, Lancaster. Any English town today with a name ending in "Chester", "cester" or "caster" was once a Roman camp or city.

1-4 century A.D.-Britain is a Roman province

5 A.D.-The Romans leave Britain.

Lecture 2

Climate and weather

Weather is not the same as climate. The weather of the British Isles is notoriously variable. The climate of a place or region, on the other hand, represents the average weather conditions through the year. In every part of the British Isles obvious changes are taking place as winter passes into spring, spring into summer, and so through autumn to winter.

Britain has a generally mild and temperate climate, which is dominated by marine influences and is rainy and equable. Britain's climate, which is much milder than that in any other country, is in the same latitudes.

This means that not only marine influences to warm the land in winter and cool it in summer, but also that the winds blowing over the Atlantic have a similar effect and at the same time carry large amounts of moisture which is deposited over the land as rain, Britain's climate is generally one of mild winters and cool summers, with rain throughout the year, although there are considerable regional changes.

Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, put on average, March to June are the driest month and October to January the wettest.

 

Lecture 3

Political system of the UK

Parliament

Government

House of Commons

House of Lords

Parliament

Parliament is a supreme legislative body. England was the first country to have a Parliament. British Parliament consists of the monarch, the House of Lords (Upper Chamber) and the House of Commons (Lower Chamber). British Parliament holds its sittings in the Palace of Westminster. The Palace of Westminster mostly known as the House of Parliament is situated on the embankment of the Thames. It is famous for its two great towers: Big Ben and Victoria tower. Big Ben belongs to the part of Westminster Palace which comprises the House of Commons. Victoria Tower is situated in the part of Westminster Palace which belongs to the House of Lords. When Parliament has a session there is a national flag on the Tower of Victoria. Besides two main chambers the Palace of Westminster has a number of working rooms for secretariat and deputies, rooms for the meeting of parliament committees, cafes, restaurants and libraries.

The main functions of the Parliament are law-making, control of the government, granting sanctions to taxes and state expenses. but as far as the law making function is concerned, only the House of Commons can propose the law. A proposed law, which is called a bill, is introduced by ministers on behalf of the British Government. Some deputies can also bring in bills. Such bills are called private members’ bills. In order to become an Act of Parliament a bill must pass through both Houses and the Royal assent.

Government

The British Parliamentary system depends on political parties. Most members of the government comprise representatives of the party which wins a majority of the seats in the House of Commons at a general election. The leader of the majority party becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister forms the government which usually consists of 60 or 70 ministers. Each minister is responsible for a particular area in the government. From these 60 or 70 ministers the Prime Minister chooses a small group of 20 representatives. This group i9s called the Cabinet of Ministers or just the Cabinet. The Cabinet is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Cabinet Ministers are the holders of the most important offices, for example, Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Home Secretary, Foreign Secretary, the Minister of Defense, the Minister of Health.

The Cabinet defines the main trends of the British Government policy. The Cabinet works under the head of the Prime Minister. Frequent Cabinet meetings take place in the Prime Minister’s residence of (10, Downing Street). The power of the Cabinet is controlled by Parliament, for no bill which a minister prepares can become law until it is passed by an Act of Parliament.

House of Commons

The House of Commons comprises 650 elected members, who are known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Members of the Parliament are the representatives of local communities. At a general election held every five years, ordinary people elect one person from their constituency to be their Member of Parliament. That is why Lower Chamber of Parliament is called the House of Commons. The House of Commons hold sessions which last for 160-170 days. MPs are paid for their parliamentary work and they have to attend the sittings.

The House of Commons is presided by the Speaker. The speaker is elected by the House of Commons. Although the Speaker belongs to one of the parties he has to be unprejudiced. His function is to keep order. He controls who speaks and for how long. The speaker wears a long wig and sits in the Speaker’s Chair in the Hall of the House of Commons.

Speaker’s Chair stands at the North end. In front of it there stands the Table of the House which is occupied by the Clerk of the House and two Clerk assistants. There are benches for the Government and its supporters to the right of the Speaker. To the left of the Speaker there are benches occupied by the Opposition. There are also Cross benches at the South end of the Hall which is occupied by the members of any other parties. The front bench of the Government is called the Treasury Bench and used by the Prime Minister and other ministers. The front benches of the Opposition are occupied by its leaders. Those who sit on the front benches of both parties are called front benchers. The back benches belong to the rank-and-file MPs (back benchers).

The House of Commons plays the major part in law making. A Bill may be introduced by any MP, in practice it is generally introduced by a Minister. In order to become a law a bill has to go through three stages of reading in the House of Commons, then have the Agreement of the House of Lords and the Royal assent.

The first reading is just publication and distribution of the proposal among the MPs. There is no debate or discussion. The second reading includes debate, discussion and criticizing. The Speaker asks the House to vote. If bill passes the second reading it goes to a committee. The third reading is called a report stage. The Bill is discussed in detail and many alterations may be made. Then the Speaker receives the report of the Committee and asks the House to vote again. If the Bill gets a majority vote, it goes to the House of Lords.

House of Lords

The House of Lords consists of more than 1000 members, but only 250 take an active part in the work of the House. The members of the House are the Lords “Temporal” (i.e. Barons, Earls, Marquises and Dukes) and the Lords “Spiritual”(i.e. the Archbishops of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, and twenty- four Bishops).

The Lords “Temporal” can be hereditary peers and peeresses and life peers and peeresses. Life peers and peeresses receive their peerages as a reward for service and their children do not inherit the title.

Members of the House of Lords are not elected. They sit there because of their rank. The Chairman of the Upper Chamber is the Lord Chancellor. He sits on a special picturesque seat which is called the Woolsack. It is a large bag of wool covered with red cloth. This tradition goes back to the period of the reign of Edward III (XIYc.). The Woolsack is a reminder of the time when England’s commercial prosperity was founded on her wool exports.

The Lords debate a bill if it has passed by the House of Commons. They only have power to delay a bill (if it isn’t a financial one). They can throw it out once, but if the bill is presented a second time they must pass it.

Lecture 4

Education system in the UK

PLAN: 1.School education

a) Primary education

b) Secondary education

2.Post-school education

3.University education

 

There are 3 stages of education in GREAT BRITAIN: primary, secondary and further education. Primary and secondary stages are school education. Further education means post-school education. Compulsory school education lasts 11 years, from the age of 5 to 16.

After the age of 16 young people can take further education. They can leave school but continue their education in a further education college, or they can continue studying at school until 18 years and then enter institutions of higher education or universities.

SCHOOL EDUCATION

There is compulsory secondary education inGreat Britain. All children must, by law,begin their school education at the age of 5 the minimum age for leaving school is 16.

There are schools maintained by state and private. Maintained schools in Great Britain are free. In private (or independent) schools parents have to pay for their children’s education. The fees vary from 250 pounds a term for day.

Education in the maintained schools usually consists of two-stages-primary and secondary or three stages – first schools, middle schools and upper schools. In most schools boys and girls are taught together. Pre-schools education can be taken from three to five in nursery schools or nursery classes of primary schools.

Great Britain has a great number of various types of schools, primary schools, middle schools, grammar, technical,secondary modern schools, comprehensive schools and other.

A) PRIMARY EDUCATION

On the first stage of school education – primary stage children study in primary school from the age of 5 to 11.The primary school may be divided into two parts: infant and junior.

The infant school takes children from 5 to 7,after which they continue studying in the junior school from 7 to 11.

At infant school children learn reading, writing and arithmetic. They also sing, draw, do physical exercises. At junior school children have arithmetic, reading, composition, history, geography, nature study, art and music, physical education.

At 11, after finishing primary school course, children go to second stage of school education-secondary school.

Middle school teach children between 8 and 14 (8-12,9-13,9-14)after which pupils go to comprehensive school.

B) SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education is compulsory for all up to the age of 16.There are different types of secondary schools: grammar, technical, modern and comprehensive schools.

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS take only children who have good results of the “11 plus examination (11+)”. It is an examination for children of 11 years old or a little older(eleven plus some months). It consists of an arithmetic paper, an English paper and an intelligence test.

Grammar school gave academic education for the selected pupils from the age of 11 to 18,and prepare them for higher education. The general level of education in these school is very high. The school teaches English language and literature, modern languages, Latin, Mathematics, physics, Chemistry, Biology, history, Geography and other subjects.

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS as well as grammar schools educate selective pupils. But they are specialized in technical studies. The main subjects are science and mathematics.

Secondary modern school give a general,non-academic education up to the minimum school leaving age of 16.After finishing this school pupils cannot enter higher educational establishments.

Comprehensive school are the most popular schools in Britain today(especially in England and Wales).These schools take all the children in a given area without selecting examination.All the same time they offer all the courses taught in the three traditional schools described above-academic and practical subjects.So comprehensive schools are much bigger then the later.

COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL take the following age ranges: from 11 to 18 (after primary schools) from 12,13 or 14 to 18 years (after middle schools),and from 11 to 16 years.

All state schools have a National Curriculum. It consists of 10 subjects which all the children must study at school. The subjects are English, Mathematics, Science, a modern foreign language.(for 11-16 years olds),Technics and Design,History, Geography,Music,Art, Physical education.Pupils progress in subjects is measured by written and practical tests.

The National Curriculum aims to ensure all children study basic subjects and have a better all-round education.

After 5 years of secondary education pupils take principal examinations for the General certificate of secondary education(GCSE) After the GCSE advanced (A)level.

POST-SCHOOL EDUCATION

At the age of 16 young people can choose their further education at school or outside school. They can continue studying at school until the age of 18. They can leave school and continue their education in various colleges, polytechnics and vocationally oriented schools, such as drama schools, art schools,ballet schools or schools of librarianship and others. The most part of those institutions are private i.e. fee-charging.

These institutions do not give higher education, they prepare a variety of professions for industry and commerce such as sewing, typing, book-keeping and many others.

The UK post school institution of higher education are universities, polytechnics and other higher education colleges.

There are different universities in the country. Admission to universities is by examination or selection (interviews).British students get grants from their local education authority.

A university graduate leaves with a degree. It usually takes three years to get a BACHELOR OF ARTS or BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE.

A MA or MS degree may be got in one or two additional years.

Universities are centers of research as well as teaching and many postgraduates are engaged in research for higher education. The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy. It may take any number of years to finish the original research work necessary to get this degree.

British universities greatly differ from each other. They differ in date of foundation, size, history, traditions and general organization.

Higher education has become more available in the second half of the 20th century.

In 1960 there were less than 25 universities in Britain. By 1980 there were already more than 40,and by 1995 there were over a hundred institutions with the universities.

There are no great distinctions between different types of universities in Britain. But still there are some categories of them.First of all,Oxbridge. Oxford and Cambridge were founded in the medieval period. These universities consist of semi- independent colleges each of them having its own staff (“Fellows”).The “Fellows” teach the college students either one-to-one or in very small groups. This system is unique in the world and known as tutorials in Oxford and supervisions in Cambridge.

Then, Scottish universities. By 1600 Scotland had 4 universities-Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and St.Andrews resembles Oxbridge very much. In the other three most of the students live at home or find their rooms. There is less specialization than at Oxbridge.

During the 19^th century various institutions of higher education(usually technical ones)were founded in the industrial towns and cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds. Their buildings were of local bricks so they got the name “redbrick” universities. They contrasted chiefly with Oxford and Cambridge. At first, they prepared students for London University degree, but later they were given the right to award their own degrees. They become universities themselves. Now they accept students from all over the country. These universities are financed by local authority.

One of the developments in education in Britain is certainly the open university.It was founded in 1971. Some people don’t have an opportunity to study full-time, and this university allows them to study for degree.

This university ‘s courses are taught through television, radio and course books. Its students work individually and with tutors,to whom, they sound their papers. The students discuss their work at meetings or through correspondence. In summer they attend short courses.

OXBRIDGE

Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest universities in Great Britain. They are called Oxbridge to denote an elaterium education.

Only rich people send their children to those universities.The main characteristic feature of these universities is the tutorial (that means the individual tuition)

Oxford and Cambridge universities consist of a number of colleges, each self-governing and independent. Before 1970 most of all Oxbridge universities were single-sex(mostly for men).But now the majority admit both sexes. The administrative body of the university consists of the chancellor (who is elected for life),the vice-chancellor(who is in practice the head of the university, and is appointed by the Chancellor) and two people, whose job is to maintain discipline. Each college has its staff called “FELLOWS”

The largest colleges have more than 400 students, the smallest have less than 30.

OXFORD is one of the oldest universities in Europe. It didn’t come into being all at once. Oxford had existed as a city for at last 300 years before scholars began to resort to it.

The end of the 12^th century saw the real beginning of the university. The first group of scholars were from Paris and from other parts of Britain.

A characteristic feature of Oxford is that many traditions of the middle ages are still current there. One of them is that the students have to wear gowns.

The earliest college buildings seem to have no definite plan. They expanded at the end. Nowadays there are 29 college for men, 5 for women and another 5 both men and woman members.Oxford is the place of great beauty but it is not just a shrine to the past.It is a living entity.

 

Lecture 5

The main economical regions

1. The main economical regions

2. The South industrial and agricultural region.

3.The Midlands

4. Lancashire and Yorkshire

5. National Economy of Scotland

6. Wales.

The main economic regions.

Regional differences in the country’s economy are essential despite its small territory. Historically England proper is divided into the following economic regions the South industrial and Agricultural region, Central England or the Midlands, Lancashire, Yorkshire and North England. Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are also regarded as independent economic regions of the United Kingdom. Hence, the whole country consists of eight economic regions.

One of the main problems to emerge in Britain during the twentieth century has been the imbalance of economic activity between individual regions. This largely on the coal fields and its replacement by a new structure more closely related to accessibility and the transport and network. Attempts have been made to slow down or even reverse this process but they have failed and Britain has witnessed the emergence of what has been called the “Two Nations” – one characterized by comparative economic activity (especially of the so-called “new industries”) population growth and a strong industrial base, the other which includes most of the coalfield marked by declining industries, decaying towns and cities, and high rates of emigration. The outlying national regions of the United Kingdom, such as Wales, Scotland and especially Northern Ireland are most depressive. The traditional disparities which existed between these regions and England proper have accelerated in recent years.

The combination of an inefficient manufacturing industry, then policy of “privatization” has produced unemployment are a true reflection of the decline which has occurred in the old industries of the country. Especially hard hit are the outlying national regions such as Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Besides these regions, North England, Lancashire and Yorkshire are also experiencing difficulties. South England and the midlands are comparatively doing well.

There is the obvious relationship between unemployment and the dependence of an area on manufacturing industry. For it has been manufacturing industry which has born the brunt of the recession, and employment in this sector of the economy has actually declined to such an extent that the very existence of some of the country’s major industries is now threatened. These included several of the industries upon which the United Kingdom has traditionally dependent for prosperity – such as iron and steel, shipbuilding, textiles. Emphasis has been put recently on the development of high technology industries – in an attempt to overcome the problems of the country. However, growth did not fully offset the losses suffered by the old traditional industries. In fact the industries to show large-scale growth have been limited to those in the area of high technology. Hence those regions where there is a greater concentration of high technology industries, such as South England, The Midlands, can be regarded to be in a more favorable position. Nevertheless, this remedy is not without its problems.

 

Lancashire and Yorkshire

 

Two major industrial regions are situated to the north of the Midlands. They are Lancashire, which is on the western slopes of the Pennines and Yorkshire on the eastern side.

Lancashire is a historic centre of British industry, it the birth place of capitalism and it was here that the Industrial Revolution started.

We may distinguish two major centers in this region: Merseyside and Greater Manchester.

Merseyside is centered on Liverpool. In the space of two hundred years from 1650 to 1850- Liverpool grew from a small fishing village to become Britain’s leading port. The port served the Lancashire cotton industry which was the fastest growing industry in the world. Much of the prosperity was, due to its taking part in the shameful Triangular Trade or slave trade.

The chemical industry is developed, using brine (water is pumped down into the salt deposits, which dissolves the salt and then the water is forced to the surface as brine) from the salt deposits in nearby Cheshire. It expanded rapidly with the development of oil-based chemicals and the soap and detergent industries, which were closely related to it, also grew quickly. In the 1960s the motor-car industry developed here. However, today the car industry is in decline and this in turn contributed to the growth of unemployment. Another important industry, shipbuilding and ship repairing, developed at Birkenhead.

Great Manchester, like Merseyside, was one of the metropolitan counties to be formed in 1947, and includes a number of towns, grouped round the upper Mersey.

At the heart of the region the Manchester itself, a city of ancient origin probably called Mancunium by the Romans. People who live in the city are therefore known as Mancunians.

By the seventeenth century Manchester was the center of a textile industry. It was a great commercial city. Great advances in manufacture were made in the late eighteenth century by several inventions which marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The building of canals encouraged the development of the city.

However, the important was the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1984 which made the city a seaport in spite of it being 50 km from the sea.

Clothing manufacture based on cotton and synthetic fibers and good processing are important activities, but engineering (including electrical engineering) is the principal employer of labour.

Of the towns situated on the shore of the Irish Sea most important is Black pool, which is a popular coastal resort in northern England. Today it houses nearly one hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. Due to extensive industrial development agriculture is less developed in Lancashire. There is a limited proportion of permanent grassland on the fertile lowlands of south Lancashire. Cattle and sheep are relatively few, but there is a concentration of poultry. Potatoes are an important crop. Other vegetables such as cabbages and peas are also cultivated.

South Yorkshire as a whole lies on the largest and most productive coalfields in the country.

Sheffield and its neighborhood produces almost two-thirds of the country’s alloy steels. Sheffield produces a wide range of steel goods besides cutlery.

Like South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire a large conurbation, and became one of the metropolitan countries formed in 1974. It is also the home of another great industry – the manufacture of woolen goods, and has one large town-Leeds (705,000).

Being the chief commercial and cultural center of West Yorkshire it does not lead in textile. Its main industry is the manufacture of clothing, and engineering is also important. The latter provides work mainly for men, as the ready-made clothing factories do mainly for women. Engineering products are extremely varied.

Bradford (462,500) has long been the leading centre of worsted and woolen manufacture.

In North Yorkshire the largest town is York (100,000). In Roman times it was called Eboracum. It has long been important as a route centre. Railway engineering developed, and another leading industry is the manufacture of confectionery (including chocolate). York attracts many tourists on account of its famous minister and the medieval city walls. In recent years the city’s population has changed little, but is especially swollen by tourists during the summer months.

On the basic of local are the iron and steel industry developed in Scunthorpe (66,000). The expansion of the town was due to the discovery of iron in the neighborhood. The steel provides an essential raw material for the engineering plants. Scunthorpe has large integrated steelworks where all the stages in steel manufacture take place: coal is converted into coke in coke ovens, the ore is smelted in blast furnaces, and the molten pig-iron is converted into steel at the same works. A massive modernization programme was carried out in the 1970s, and Scunthorpe today has become one of the leading steel-making centers in the country.

The estuary of the Humber is one of the most spacious in Britain, and it is also well placed for trade with Europe. Thus a number of seaports have grown up there, and two of them, Immingham and Grimsby, have risen to front-rank importance. Grimsby developed mainly as a fishing post (second places) Grimsby and Hull have long been rivals in the fish trade, (ports) taking first and second places among the country’s fishing ports. Both ports have suffered from the decline in the fishing industry. Grimsby, however, has benefited from the industrial development along the south bank of the estuary. It has also become a leading centre for the preparation of frozen foods.

In the early days prosperity depended largely on fishing and in most recent years the fishing fleet landed a bigger catch than of any other port. Hull had a majority of modern long-distance trawlers. When difficulties arose in the industry, in particular the adjustment of fishing limits, the effects were severely felt in Hull. Fishing and associated occupations no longer retained their leading role. Its industry is closely connected with the imports: timber goes to the sawmills, flour to flour mills, etc.

The economy of Yorkshire was always closely connected with wool. This is vividly reflected in the development of agriculture. The highlands along the Pennines covered with coarse grass form rough pasture for sheep grazing, especially in the western and northern regions. North Yorkshire is mainly a rural farming region. Farming is mixed and includes cattle rearing and cultivation of root crops such as potatoes, carrots and cereals, mainly barley. In the north dairy cattle outnumber beef cattle.

Much of the territory to the east, especially near the coast is under the plough. Barley and wheat are major crops and sugar beet and potatoes are also important.

Wales.

Wales is the predominantly mountainous country, with large areas of land over six hundred meters in height, and for the past two hundred years, these upland areas have lost population. South Wales is the main area of industrial activity, because it was coal that first gave life to industry. The nineteenth century saw a tenfold increase in the population of the South west coalfield region. Large-scale expunction of coal mining did not take lace till the second half of the nineteenth century. Merchant navies, railways and works all required increasing amounts of coal. On the coast Cardiff and Newport handled the coal that came down by the valley railway.

By the 1930s coal exports were already declining, causing economic depression and unemployment. The overseas trade disappeared in World War II, and only partly and temporally revived in place time. Important consumers were now turning to oil, and the reduced demand led to the closure to many pits and again unemployment. From about 200 pits as the end of World War II the number was reduced to less that 50. The number of working miners fell by about two-thirds and the industry lost its position as the leading employer in South Wales. All this has created immense social problems, particularly in the valleys where the dependence on mining valleys is the Rhonadda, its population, however, is steadily falling due to coal production decline.

Like coal mining, the iron and steel industry is long established in the south. For much of the nineteenth century South Wales was the leading producer in Britain. The prosperity was based on the availability of basic raw materials-coking coal and iron ore. As the iron ores were exhausted, and foreign ores had to be imported, the iron and steel works were moved to sites near the coast. The major integrated steel works is situated at Port Talbot, where a new harbor was opened in 1970 to accommodate the largest ore carries. However, by the end of the 1970s the steel industry faced widespread recession and steel production was drastically reduced.

Other material industry in south Wales, notably the manufacture of tinplate is in the Swansea district, South Wales is an important centre for the manufacture of non-ferrous metals. Its main centre is Swansea. Industrial recession has also affected this industry. Efforts have been made to attract new engineering industries; however, they haven’t solved the serious social problems caused be the decline of the traditional industries.

Cardiff (280,000) is the largest city in industrial South Wales, and is also the national capital and main business centre. It rose to importance with the coal mining and iron industries. Today the cargoes it handles are mainly imports, to be distributed throughout south Wales. On imported grain flour milling developed as well as other food processing. Swansea and Newport shared coal exports too. However, later they suffered the same decline like Cardiff. The main port of Wales today is Milford Hayed (situated in the very southwest) because of its oil tanker traffic. It is one of the leading oil terminals of Britain. Refineries grew up on opposite shores and Milford Hayed became an important refining centre. A pipeline takes petroleum to a refinery near Swansea.

North Wales is mountainous. In the north-west is the district known as Snowdonia, where the Snowdonia National Park is situated and where the Snowdon the highest peak in Wales (1085m), towers over its mountain group. Sheep rising is the main occupation of the population.

In addition to the river valleys and the narrow coastal plain, North Wales has some Lowland areas, including those on the island of Anglesey. At these lower altitudes the climate is much more favorable. Here the farmers concentrate on cattle rather than sheep. They raise both dairy and buff cattle, the former providing milk for English industrial districts as well as the towns of North Wales. Oats root crops are drown here mainly for fodder.

Despite the small coalfield, industrialization has had little effect on North Wales. Recently two nuclear power stations were built: one in V, the other in Anglesey. They both supply power to the national grid system. Tourism is mainly concentrated in the northern coastal strip. On holy Island, which lies off the coast of Anglesey, is Holyhead, terminus of road and rail routs from London and chief ferry port, for services to the Irish public-via Dun Loaghaire (pronounced dunleary), near Dublin.

In general, Wales, which is the national outlying region of GB, faces serious social and economic problems, caused by the depression of its traditional industries. Unemployment remains high and the future of many miners and workers remains very uncertain.

Lecture 6

1. Geographical position of the USA

2. Six main regions

a. The Northeast

b. The central basin

c. The Southeast

d. The Great Plains

e. The mountains and Deserts,

f. The Coast Valleys

3. The rivers

4. The nation of immigrants

5. Why they came, why they come

 

THE CENTRAL BASIN

The gently sloping land of the central Basin was once the frontier to those who crossed the Appalachian Mountains. In Illinois these pioneers reached the end of the great eastern forests.Before them was a rich grass land.The fertile soils and the long hot summers with enough rain were a farmer’s dream. There the states as Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,Iowa and Nebraska which are known as the Corn Belt. The North part of this region is in Wisconsin and Minnesota which are cooler and more moist states in this region. There dairy farming flourishes. On a typical farm in the Central Basin the farmer will own about 87 hectares and plant one main crop. He will also have a large herd of livestock. All planting,cultivating, fertilizing, spraying and harvesting he will do himself.

THE GREAT PLAINS

The Great Plains begin with he 50 centimeters rainfall line which runs north and South almost through the center of the country.The traveler becomes aware of the difference in the atmosphere once he crosses this invisible line.This is a land of extreme heat and extreme cold. It is a land where water is worth more than property. It is almost flat, rising imperceptibly for 640 kilometers until it suddenly meets the mountains to the West.

Nowhere is the rainfall more unpredictable or the climate more violent. For two or three years there may be enough rain.Then there is a year when no rain falls, when the streams from the mountains dry up and their channels are filled with sand.The wind blows constantly.It is very hot from July to September,but it the winter snow covers houses.

The Great Plains is a hard country. The heat of the summer is scorching (hot),the winter is freezing.The wind blows fiercely with few hills or forests to stop it, from Montana on the Canadian border to the Mexican border state of Texas.Water is precious. Its scarcity drove the settlers on across the plains as far as they could go.Only Red Indians knew how to survive here. They captured the wild horses, descended from those that escaped from Spanish explores in the 16^th century,and hunted the buffalo, that provided them with most of their food, clothing and tools.

THE MOUNTAINS AND DESERTS region like the Great Plains did not attract settlers at first. It was a fearful area, to be crossed as quickly as possible to reach the Pacific coast. Seeking land and gold, the settler at first found neither until they reached the Pacific slopes.But then gold was found at Pikes Peak and in a few other parts of the Rocky mountains. Clearly,there was gold in the Rockies and men hurried back,faster than they had hurried through.

The Majestic Rocky mountains stretch all the way from Mexico to the Arctic, like the Alps, they are high, sharp and rugged. Compared with the Appalachians in the East,they are young and their faces of bare rock are capped with snow,even to the south. In the high valleys, there are remains of the glaciers, while below them there are clear, icy lakes.

The Rocky mountains are the long backbone of the continent –over 4,200 meters high and 560 kilometers wide in Utah and Colorado,because of its unusual and varied natural beauty, much of this mountain and desert region has been preserved unspoiled in national parks such as Yellowstone in Wyoming and Death Valley in California.

Today about 170,000sq.kilometres of deserts. In the 960 kilometers between Salt lake city,Utah and Peno,Nevada,there is nothing but dead lakes,dry rivers, snakes and small animal life, enormous mineral wealth,and the inhuman beauty of the desert.

Most of Rocky Mountain gold is gone today. Some other minerals also vanished much too quickly due to mining methods. While soil can gradually be restored and trees planted on bare hillsides,the mineral wealth of the earth can not be re-created.

Today the nation’s largest open-hit copper mining center is Bingham, Utah, in one of the Great basin ranges.

Modern industry demands more and more of the nation’s mineral wealth.

Each new electric plant needs many kilometers of copper wire: machines require iron,lead and other minerals.Coal, oil and natural gas must drive the machines.

States like Texas and Oklahoma long have been noted for their oil production, but the west also has vast new energy reserves.

The West is the site for the development of alternative energy sources. Wind-power experiments conducted in New Mexico eventually may lead to installations providing two percent of the nation’s electrical power.

Sunny Colorado,New Mexico and California,along with numerous other states, are important testing grounds for solar energy.

THE WEST COAST VALLEYS

When Americans began to move to the Far West-before any gold discoveries in the region the entire Pacific Coast attracted them. Why did they come, these men,women and children from the East? Why did they endure the frightful trials of the plains, the mountains, the deserts? Why did they want so much to move West?

The Americans came because they wanted more space, free land,a freer life,and perhaps a fortune, too.

The Pacific Coast,from San Francisco to Seattle,was first reached by English,Russian and other explorers. Some established fur trading posts.

All three Pacific Coast states-Washington, California and Oregon –face toward the Orient. Cargoes of fish timber and fruit are shipped from the ports of San Francisco, Portland and Seattle to Asia. There is a large Chinese Community in San Francisco.

Quaint cable cars clang up and down its sleep hills and ships sail from the Pacific Ocean under the sweeping span of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco Bay, one of the world’s finest land-locked harbors.

Seattle is the gateway to Alaska,the 49^th state. In order to get to Alaska a person must take a boat or airplane.

The 50^th state is Hawaii, it is a string of sun-drenched islands over 3.200 kilometers out in the Pacific Ocean from the coast of California. Pineapple plantation of Waikiki Beach are world famous. People living here speak of the rest of the US as the Mainland.

THE RIVERS:

1.Mississippi

2.Missouri

3.Ohio

4.Columbia

5.Colorado

6.Rio Grande

 

The Mississippi is one of the world’s great continental rivers, like the Amazon in South America, the Congo in Africa,the Volga in Europe, or the Ganges, Amur in Asia.Its waters are gathered from two-thirds of the United States and, together with the Missouri (its chief western branch),the Mississippi flows some 6,400 kilometers from its northern sources in the Rocky mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, which makes it one of the world’s longest waterways.

The Mississippi has been called the “father of waters”. Through all its lower course it wonders along,appearing lazy and harmless.

Where the Missouri pours into the Mississippi from the West is colours the river deep brown with small pieces of soil. Father downstream, where the clear waters of the principal eastern tributary the Ohio join the Mississippi, evidence of the difference between the dry west and raining east becomes apparent. For kilometers,the waters of the two rivers flow on side by side, without mixing. Those from the west are brown, they have robbed the soil in areas of vegetation. The waters from the east are clear and blue; they come from hills and valleys where plentiful forest and plant cover has kept the soil from being washed away.

Like the Mississippi, all the rivers in the east of the Rockies finally reach the Atlantic; all the waters to the east of the Rockies finally arrive at the Pacific. For this reason the crests of the Rocky Mountains is known as the Continental Divide. There are many places in the Rockies where a visitor may throw two snowballs in opposite directions and know that each will feed a different ocean.

The two great rivers of The Pacific side are the Colorado in the south,and the Columbia, which rises in Canada and drains the North.In the dry western country,both rivers,very different in character,they are vital sources of life. The Columbia,wild in prehistoric times,cutting and shaping the land, now flows with quiet dignity. But the Colorado is still a river of enormous fury-wild, restless and angry. It races and plunges, cutting deeply into the desert rocks. But even the furious Colorado has been dammed and put to work. All the farms and cities of the Southwestern corner of the country depend on its water.

The Rio Grande,About 3.200 kilometers long, is the foremost river of the Southwest. It forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the US, which together have built irrigation and flood control projects of mutual benefit.

THE NATION OF IMMIGRANTS

Immigrants in US why they came, why they come. The United States has often called “a nation of immigrants”. There are two good reason for this. First, the country was settled,built and developed by generation of immigrants. Secondly,even today America continuous to take in more immigrants than any other country in the world. It is not surprising, that the US is counted as the most heterogeneous societies in the world. Many different cultural traditions, ethnic sympathies, national origins,racial groups, and religious affiliations make up” we the people”

Nonetheless, it would be very misleading to view America simply as a collection of different immigrant groups and ethnic or religious loyalties. It is not true that there are more Irish,more German, and more Puerto Ricans living in New York City than there are Dublin, Frankfurt or San Juan.Nor do most New Yorkers think of themselves primarily as Jews,Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Italians, Germans or Irishmen.

The US is one of the few countries that has no “official” national language. English is the common language by use, but it is not the national language by law. About 30 million Americans speak a language other than English at home.This means,for example that if you meet an American in New Mexico who speaks Spanish as his first language,he could be a recent immigrant,having arrived in the US only a few years ago,or his grandparents could have arrived in the US a hundred years ago.

Lecture 7

A NEW NATION

In 1776, the 13 British colonies in America came together,stood up and told what was the world’s greatest power that from now on they would be free and independent states. The British were neither impressed nor amused and a bitter six-year war followed, the Revolutionary War(1776-1783)It’s hard to appreciate today,over two centuries later, what a revolutionary act this was. A new republic was founded,turning into reality the dreams and ideas of a few political philosophers. Americans broke with on age-old tradition and so sent shock waves back across the ocean; they decided that it was their right to choose their own form of government. Something new was under the sun:a system at government,in Lincoln’s words, ”of the people,by the people, for the people”

CONGRESS LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up at the Senate and The House of Representatives. There are 100 senators,two from each state.One third of the senators are elected every two years for six-year terms at office. The senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests.

The House has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of “Congressional districts” into each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance,California,the state with the largest population,has 45 Representatives,while Delware has one. There is no limit to the number of terms a senator or a Representative may serve.

Almost all election in the United States follow the “winner-take-all” principle:the candidate who wins the largest number at votes in a congressional district is the winner.

Congress makes all laws and each House of congress has the power to introduce legislation.Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Because legislation only becomes law if both houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. Congress decides upon taxes how much money is spent. In addition, it regulates commerce among the states & with foreign countries.It also sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.

The US congress,the lawmaking arm of the federal government consists of two houses: The House of Representatives& The Senate. Any congressman in either house,or the president,may initiate new legislation.

The Proposed legislation,or bill, is first introduced in the House of Representatives, then referred to one at the standing committees, which organizes hearings on it and may approve, amend the draft. If the committee passes the bill,it’s considered by the House of Representatives as a whole. It passed there. It goes to the Senate for a similar sequence of committee hearings and general debate.

In cases of disagreement, the House of Representatives and the Senate confer together. Once passed by the senate as a whole, the bill has to be examined by two more standing committees –The Committee on House Administration and The Senate Committee on Rules and Administration and is then signed by the speaker at the House and by the President. Finally it must be signed by the president, who has the right to veto it.If the president vetoes a bill, it can still become a law-but only if it’s passed by a two –third majority of both houses of Congress.

THE PRESIDENCY

Term of office: Elected by the people. Through the electrical college, to a four-year term; Limited to two terms.

Salary:$ 200.000 plus $ 50.000 allowance for expenses and up to $ 100.000 tax-free for travel & official entertainment.

Inauguration: January 20,following the November general election.

Qualifications: Native-born American citizen at least 35 years old and at least 14 years

a resident of the United States.

Chief Duty: to protect the Constitution and enforce the laws mode by the congress.

Other powers: To recommend legislation to the Congress; to call special sessions of the Congress; to deliver message to the Congress; to veto bills; to appoint federal judges; to appoint heads of federal departments and agencies and other principal federal officials to appoint representatives to foreign countries; to carry on official business with foreign nations; to exercise the function at Commander –in-chief of the armed forces; to grant pardons for offences against the US.

The Presidential term of four years begins on January 20 following November election. The President starts his or her official duties with an inauguration ceremony, traditionally held on the steps of the US. The President publicly takes an oath of office, which is traditionally administered by the justice of the US.

THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY.

The federal judiciary is the third branch of government,in addition to the legislative (Congress) & executive(President).

It’s main instrument is the Supreme court, which matches over the other two branches.It determines whether or not their laws and acts are in accordance with the Constitution.

Congress has the power to the fix the number of judges sitting on the Court,but it cannot change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself. The Supreme Court consist of a chief justice and eight associate justices. They are nominated by the President but must be approved by the Senate.Once approved, they hold office as Supreme Court Justices for life. A decision of the Supreme Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Neither the President nor Congress can change their decisions. In addition to the Supreme Court, Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal and below them, 91 federal district courts.

The Supreme Court has direct jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases. Those involving foreign diplomats and those in which a state is a party. All other cases which reach the court are appeals from lower courts. Most of the cases involve the interpretation of the Constitution.The Supreme Court also has the “power of judicial review” that it has the right to declare laws of actions of the federal state and local governments unconstitutional.While not stated in the constitution,this power was established over time.

7.CHECKS & BALANCES.

The Constitution provides for three main branches of government which are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are carefully balanced by the powers of the other two.

Each branch serves as a check on the others. This is to keep any branch from gaining too much power or from misusing its powers. The Chart below illustrates how the equal branches of government are connected and how each is dependent on the other too.Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of Congress. Congress in its turn,can override a veto by two-third vote in each house. Congress can also refuse to provide funds requested by the President.The President can appoint important officials of his Administration,but they must be approved by the Senate. The President has also the power to name all federal judges; they also must be approved by the Senate. The courts have the power to determine the constitutionality of all acts of Congress and of Presidential actions and to strike down those they find unconstitutional.

The system of checks and balances makes compromise and consensus necessary. Compromise is also a vital aspect of other levels of government in the US. This system protects against extremes. It means, for example, that new presidents cannot radically change governmental polices just as they wish. In the US. therefore, when people think of ”the government”, they usually mean the entire system, that is,The Executive Branch and the President, Congress and The Court. In fact and in practice,therefore,the President (i.c. the administration) is not as powerful as many people outside the US seem to think he is. In comparison with other leaders in system where the majority party forms ”the government” he is much less so.

8.POLITICAL PARTIES.

The constitution says nothing about political parties, but over time the US has in fact developed a two-party system. The two leading parties are the Democrats and the Republicans.There are other parties besides these two, and foreign observes are often surprised to learn that among these there are also a Communist party and several Socialist parties. Minor parties have occasionally won offices at lower levels of government but they do not play a role in national politics. In fact, one does not need to be a member at a political party too run in any election at any level of government.Also, people can simply declare themselves to be members of one of the two major parties when they registered to vote in a district. Sometimes the Democrats are thought of as associated with labour and the Republicans with business and industry. Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal government in some areas of public life which they consider to be the responsibility of the states and communities.Democrats,on the other hand tend to favor a more active role of the central government in social matters.

To distinguish between the parties is often difficult. Further more, the traditional European terms of “right” and “left” or “ conservative” and ”liberal” do not quite fit the American system. Someone from the “conservative right” for instance, would be against a strong central government. Or a Democrat from one part of the country could be very “liberal», and one from another part quite ”conservative. While some voters will vote a “straight ticket», in other words, for all of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election,many do not. They vote for one party’s candidate for one office, and another’s for another. As a result,the political parties have much less actual power than they do in other nations. In the US the parties cannot win.

In about 70% of legislative decision, congressman will vote with the specific wishes of their constituencies in mind, even if they go against what their own parties might want as national policy.

It’s quite common, in fact, to find Democrats in Congress voting for a Republican President’s legislation, quite a few Republicans voting against it and so on.