From the history of veterinary medicine

 

Even at the ancient times diseases of people were compared with those of animals. Hippocrates and other known physicians made sections of animal corps to study the body structure, for the section of human body was not allowed by the church till the late Middle Ages. The veterinary medicine as a separate science appeared since the 17^th century. At that time cattle plague was the most devastating disease that seriously affected Europe’s social and economic life. It greatly reduced the incomes of landowners, deprived merchants of products of animal origin, depleted peasants, while the urban population could obtain meat, dairy products, leather and wool goods at extremely high prices.

The plague was of such great concern that Italian physician Giovanni Lancisi was ordered by the government to investigate this disease when it first appeared in Italy in 1713. Lancisi developed some measures to control the epizootic; he established the quarantine, the inspection of meat, the destruction of sick animals and the hygienic control of the environment. The control procedures prescribed by Lancisi soon liberated Rome and its surrounding countryside from the plague, but the remainder continued to devastate European countries.

The devastation caused by rinderpest was so great in France that nearly half the cattle population was destroyed between 1710 and 1714. The King established a commission of physicians and agriculturists to determine what action was needed. After 40 years of reports, petitions, enormous economic losses a royal decree empowered Claude Bourgelat, a physician, who was an eminent authority on animal diseases, to establish a school at Lyon for the study of diseases of cattle, horses and other domestic animals. The school was opened in 1762 and soon gained fame for its useful advice on handling disease outbreaks. Students from all over France and Europe came in Lyon to study. Later on new schools were established in Vienna, Berlin, Hanover, Copenhagen and other cities of Europe.

The dissemination of disease control measures, the quarantine of sick animals and restriction of their carriers, the slaughter of diseased animals, cleaning of cattle housing, barns and sheds, avoiding fields and pastures where sick animals had grazed, all this had brought effect.

Here was the beginning of the significant contribution of veterinary medicine to society. Not only public health but also mankind’s economic and social well-being have benefited from the advancement of veterinary medicine. The protection of animal health resulted in an expanded rural economy that in turn provided a base for the industry and development of the whole world market. Many world-known scientists among them many Russian researchers like professor V.L. Jakimov (parasitology), academician K.I.Skryabin, (founder of the veterinary protozoology), epidemiologist professor S.N. Vyshelessky made a valuable contribution to the development of veterinary medicine.

 

Упражнение 1. Прочтите и переведите вышеприведенный текст, обращая внимание на необходимые слова и выражения.

ancient - древний Hippokrates - Гипократ

to compare - сравнивать physician - врач

cattle plague - чума скота to graze - пасти (-сь)

to deplete peasants - разорять крестьян to deprive - лишать

to be of great concern - иметь большое значение

environment - окружающая среда, условия

to destroy - уничтожать, разрушать dissemination - распространение

disease outbreak - вспышка болезни well-being - благосостояние

advancement - прогресс, движение вперед

valuable contribution - ценный вклад

 

Упражнение 2. Переведите на английский язык следующие предложения:

1. Чума КРС стала настоящим бедствием в 18-м веке. 2. Она серьезно поразила социальную и экономическую жизнь в Европе. 3. В Италии она впервые появилась в 1713 году. 4. Итальянский врач Ланцизи исследовал эту эпизоотию. 5. Он рекомендовал карантин, инспекцию мясных и молочных продуктов, забой пораженных животных и гигиену окружающей среды. 6. Процедуры, предписанные им, быстро избавили Рим и окружающую сельскую местность от болезни. 7. Во Франции почти половина КРС была уничтожена чумой между 1710 и 1740 годами. 8. Королевским указом врач Клод Буржеля был уполномочен открыть ветеринарную школу в Лионе для изучения болезней домашних животных. 9. Позднее новые ветеринарные школы были основаны во многих крупных городах Европы. 10. Применение мер контроля за заболеваниями домашнего скота стало началом реального вклада ветеринарной медицины в жизнь общества. 11. Защита здоровья животных привела к росту сельской экономики, что в свою очередь обеспечило базу промышленности. 12. Общественное здоровье и благополучие людей выиграли от прогресса ветеринарной медицины.

Упражнение 3. Перечислите по-английски меры контроля при эпизоотиях. Назовите результаты применения мер защиты здоровья животных.

Упражнение 4. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What did stimulate the development of veterinary medicine? 2. What kind of animal diseases was particularly destructive? 3. What harm did the epizootic bring to the people? 4. Whose recommendations became very useful? 5. Where the first veterinary school was established? 6. How could veterinarians fight the epizootic? 7. Have the achievements of veterinary helped the mankind’s health and economy?

Задание 68. Прочтите и переведите нижеследующий текст.

MY FUTURE PROFESSION

It is not an easy job to choose one’s future profession. If you love animals, feel compassion for your sick animals, and you are ready to relieve their sufferings, you have made the right decision to become a veterinary surgeon (a veterinary or vet for short).

After graduated from the Academy young veterinarians can work on state or private farms, veterinary stations or bacteriological laboratories.

Certainly, you have a general notion of your profession but you haven’t got the slightest idea of the daily routine of a veterinary surgeon. For example, several years of large animal practice on cattle farm with no fixed working hours are a hard school of daily life: regular examination of a herd or individual animals; vaccinations, injections (in case of disease outbreaks); feeding and maintenance etc.

Vets take various measures to prevent contagious and non-contagious diseases of animals. They also treat sick animals and perform inspections of slaughtered cattle as well as of meat and milk products for sale.

So a veterinary practitioner has to work as physician, surgeon, epizootologist, parasitologist.

Nowadays small animal practice is the object of great consideration in large cities because many people keep pets at home (cats, dogs, rats, mice, birds, exotics, etc).

Thus in a city a veterinary practitioner has a great choice: he may have small animal surgery or general practice, or he may also have house call veterinary practice. Some veterinarians may own a pet hospital or be employed in mixed animal practice while others may be employed at emergency veterinary clinics, or have private veterinary (equine or exotic) practice.

To protect a man against diseases common to man and animals is a task of veterinary medicine. In large cities stray cats and dogs wandering along the streets in search of food offer many problems for vets. Stray animals can be vectors of dangerous infectious disease, harm people health and infect food supplies.

Another aspect connected with human health protection is the use of animals in medical researches, for example, for creating new life-saving remedies or studying their activities. The assistance of veterinary science is essential to do it.

Thus the work of veterinarians is closely related to urgent and vital problems of human society. Academician K.I.Skryabin once said: “A doctor treats man while a veterinarian treats mankind”.

 

 

THREE GREAT MICROBIOLOGISTS

Louis Pasteur

The scientific contribution of Louis Pasteur, French microbiologist is among the most valuable in the history of science. He was born 1822 at a small village in eastern France. His father and grandfather were tanners and yet as a boy he got knowledge in chemical treating of hides. One day he saw a rabid dog to run through the village and to bite a neighboring peasant. In spite of burning the wound in the near smithy the peasant died in some days. Young Louis was very impressed by this event and he swore to make everything to battle the disease.

After finishing the primary school Pasteur was admitted to the famous Ecole Superieure in Paris. Having graduated this higher school he taught chemistry and physics at different schools and began his scientific research on fermentation and development of bacteria. He determined that fermentation was the result of the activity of minute organisms. Pasteur showed that milk or beer could be soured by invading a number of such organisms. Besides he was dealing with medical problems, his interest turned to the structure of blood and blood transfusion. He suggested as a first the group classification of human blood and tried to precede it for transfusion to wounded soldiers on the front during the French-Prussian war 1870. Due to scoundrel deeds of his enemies it failed. Pasteur had to escape to Britain where he continued the works on beer. Following an investigation conducted both in France and by brewers in London he devised a procedure for manufacturing beer that would prevent its deterioration with time. British exporters were able to send beer even as far as India without fear of its deteriorating.

Having returned to France Pasteur perfected a technique for reducing the virulence of various disease-producing microorganisms. He had observed that if animals stricken with certain diseases had recovered, they became later immune to a new attack. Thus by isolating the germ of the disease and by cultivating its weakened form to be later inoculated, he could immunize animals against maladies. He succeeded in vaccination a herd of sheep against anthrax. Likewise he was able to protect fowl from chicken cholera. By further work he could obtain a weakened form of the virus that could be used for inoculation. Having detected the rabies virus by the effect on the nervous system, he applied this procedure to man. 1885 he saved the life of a boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog.

That was Pasteur¢s victory over rabies, an outstanding success. Pasteur was awarded many decorations, and he became a head of the special Research Institute named after him. And now he is regarded as one of the greatest personalities in France.

Задание 73. Расскажите о достижениях Луи Пастера, ответьте на вопросы: 1. Why are bacteria dangerous for people? 2. What dangerous disease could overcome Louis Pasteur? 3. What is the principal content of vaccination? 4. What is the meaning of the term “pasteurization”?

Robert Koch

Robert Koch was a prominent German bacteriologist, the founder of modern microbiology. He was born in 1843. As a boy he was interested in small insects and animals and collected them in his room. He observed details through the magnifying glass, because he wanted to know everything about the inner structure of animal¢s body. Once as he tried to cut a rat on the dining table a big quarrel arose between him, his brother and parents. Only his uncle supported Robert¢s occupations. He helped him to become a medical student of the famous Gottingen University. When Koch became a doctor he carried on many experiments on mice in his laboratory. In 1882 Koch discovered tuberculosis bacilli. In his report made in the Berlin Physiological Society Koch described in detail the morphology of tuberculosis bacilli and the ways to reveal them. Due to his discovery Koch became known all over the world. In 1883 he went to Egypt to study cholera. At that time there was a wide-spread epidemic of this terrible plague. Nobody knew the origin of this disease; there were not any protective measures against it. The disease spread very rapidly from one place to anoth­er and thousands of people died. But sometimes some people who were in a constant contact with the dis­eased person did not catch cholera. As soon as Koch began his investigations he found in blood, kidneys, spleen, liver and lungs of the people who died of cholera many microorganisms but all of them were not the agents of cholera. However in the walls of the intestines and in stools Koch always found an organism which looked like a comma. Many times Koch tried to grow this bacterium on gelatin but he failed to do it. Many times he inoculated this bacterium to the experimental animals, but none became ill. As the epidemic of cholera became less in Egypt, Koch went to India to continue his investigations there. In Calcutta Koch often walked along its muddy streets, where the poor people lived. Once Koch saw some muddy water on the ground near a small house. He looked into that water and thought there may be different bacteria to be analyzed. He did it under the microscope and found there the same “commas” which he had observed many times before. In 1884 Koch published his book on cholera. From the intestines of the affected men Koch isolated a small comma-shaped bacterium. He proved that these bacteria spread through drinking water. Later Koch experimented with other infectious agents and could isolate germs of such dangerous epidemic like anthrax. In 1905 Koch got the Nobel Prize for his important scientific discoveries.

Задание 74. Расскажите о работах Роберта Коха. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. Which bacteria were investigated by Koch and named after him? 2. What does occur when bacteria invade the human organism? 3. Which dangerous epidemic followed Koch in Egypt and India? 4. Is cholera possible in animals?

 

Alexander Fleming

Alexander Fleming was born in 1881 on a farm in Scotland. Since his childhood he liked animals and watched their life. He decided to become a doctor and passed on top all the exams to be a medical student in London. Then he continued the research work at one of the London hospitals and became inter­ested in bacterial action and antibacterial drugs. During the World War 1 he served as a military doctor in France and saw numerous terrible infected wounds of soldiers that could not be treated. In1918 Fleming was demobilized and returned to his work in St. Mary Hospital. One day Fleming's assistant brought him a plate on which a colony of dangerous bacteria were being grown."This plate cannot be used for the experiment,"- said the assistant.- ''Some mould has formed on it and I'll have to take another plate." Fleming was ready to allow his assistant to do so. Then he looked at the plate and saw that the bacteria around a mould had disap­peared. Fleming understood the importance of what had happened andimmediately began to study thephenomenon. He placed some mould on other plates and grew more colonies. By means of numerous experiments on animals he determined that this new substance was not toxic to the tissues and stopped the growth of the most common pathogenic bacteria.

Fleming called this substance penicillin. It is of the same family of moulds that often appear on dry bread. Many investigations had been carried out before a method of extracting pure penicillin was found.

In 1942 Flemings tried his own first experiment using penicillin for an injured friend. After several injections the man was cured. It marked the beginning of penicillin treatment. But it was very difficult for Fleming to awake interest biologists and experts to his new remedy and to decide the problem of its production. Fortunately one American company understood the great importance of this invention and USA Government offered some million dollars for penicillin production. This saved thousand of lives even in the last period of war.

For his great discovery Fleming received 1955 the Nobel Prize. In his Nobel speech he said: "Everywhere I go people thank me for saving their lives. I do not know why they do it. I didn't do anything. Nature makes penicillin. I only found it."

Задание75. Расскажите об А.Флеминге. Скажите, какими качествами должен обладать ученый.

 

 

Veterinary Science

Veterinary Science is also called veterinary medicine and includes the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the diseases of domestic animals and the management of other animal disorders. The field also deals with those diseases that are intercommunicating between animals and humans.

Persons who serve as doctors to animals have existed since early times, and veterinary practice was already established as a specialty as early as 2000 ВС in Babylonia and Egypt and the ancient Greeks had "horse-doctors". The first veterinary schools in Europe were established in the mid-18th century and since that time veterinary science has rapidly developed alongside with modern medicine.

Animal health is to ensure the efficient production of whole some animal products. Farm animals are susceptible to various infectious diseases and may suffer from viruses and harmful bacteria, so animals should be examined by veterinary surgeons regularly in order to notice disease symptoms in time and take the necessary preventive and control measures. Such common animal diseases as mastitis, brucellosis, swine fever, erysipelas, anthrax, and leptospirosis can quickly spread and cause major losses among stock animals, so they must be controlled or prevented by veterinary surgeons.

Vaccination and immunization, sanitary measures, and the severe segregation, or quarantine, of sick animals should be used by farmers and veterinary surgeons to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such as anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, canine distemper, and rabies. Sanitary control of animal housing and proper pasture management are to eliminate any carriers of animal infectious diseases which can be easily transmitted by water and soil.

The government officials must be informed about the outbreak of a notifiable disease in order to prevent the disease spread. If an animal has contract the infectious disease and cannot be cured, it will have to be slaughtered.

Veterinary surgeons also treat parasitical infections, unsanitary conditions which may cause lower fertility in livestock, and nutritional disorders and they often have to set broken limbs and neuter domestic pets. Besides, veterinary scientists investigate the chronic infectious diseases associated with high morbidity rates and various metabolic disorders. The development of vaccine to control Marek's disease in chickens is an example of the economic effect of animal-disease research that was conducted by veterinary scientists.

 

Vocabulary List

intercommunicable — зд. передаваемый

alongside with — наряду с

to set broken limbs — зд. лечить сломанные конечности

to neuter — кастрировать

morbidity rate — показатель заболеваемости

B. Veterinary Science

A veterinary surgeon's training must include the study of the basic preclinical disciplines of anatomy, histology, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology as well as bacteriology, virology, parasitology, and pathology. The clinical subjects of study may be divided into internal medicine, preventive medicine, surgery and clinical practice.

Internal medicine includes the diagnosis and treatment of diseases as they affect animals. Preventive medicine should consider the aspects of disease prevention and control, especially such diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans or diseases that may influence human health. Generally, several preventive techniques are available for the use in the prevention of disease in an animal population such as quarantine, immunisation, environmental control, various methods of disease control and eradication, early diagnosis of a disease. It has been proved that animal diseases may be prevented to a great extent by ensuring proper hygienic and sanitary conditions on a farm, which include the maintenance of safe water supplies, air sanitation, pest control, the improvement of animal housing etc. Surgery includes wound treatment, fracture repair, the excision of body parts, and the use of such techniques as radiology, anesthesiology, obstetrics, treatment of lameness etc. In most veterinary schools, clinical practice enables students, especially future veterinary surgeons, to observe and assist with actual cases of disease or other conditions which require attention. In both medical and surgical treatment, the same techniques are to be used as in medical practice on humans.

In most countries of the world, professional veterinary surgeons must complete a special educational programme. According to this programme students are to study for four or six years at the university and only after such a course of study the degree of doctor of veterinary medicine is to be awarded. Moreover, in many countries veterinary surgeons must obtain a licence to start their practice from some duly constituted authority. Veterinary surgeons may specialize either in the care of small animals such as pets and work in banian hospitals, while others may treat mainly livestock. A few veterinary surgeons may be employed by zoos or circuses to examine and take care of wild animals.

There exist different international organisations such as the World Veterinary Association (WVA), the World Veterinary Association for Small Domestic Animals (WSAVA), the European Veterinary Association for Small Domestic Animals (FECAVA), as well as national organisations, for example, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), The Russian Association of General Veterinary Practitioners and the British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA) etc. Their purpose is to advance Veterinary Science and Veterinary Medical Profession, to hold conferences or seminars on veterinary problems.

 

Vocabulary List

wound treatment— обработка ран

fracture repair— лечение переломов

excision—удаление obstetrics— акушерство

lameness— хромота

duly constituted authority — должным образом уполномоченные за­коном власти

 

Animal Husbandry

Agriculture provides people with food, feed and other useful products. All over the world farmers cultivate valuable plants and raise productive domesticated animals. There are two main branches in modern agriculture: crop production (or crop farming) and animal husbandry (or animal farming).

Nowadays, in many countries people are still relying on meat, milk and eggs as main sources of food. Both breeders and farmers have already bred and are still breeding highly productive agricultural animals. Animal farming is a process in which a farmer breeds, raises and cares for livestock either for commerce or private use.

The word "livestock" refers to domesticated animals such as beef and dairy cattle, sheep, goats, swine (hogs), horses, donkeys and mules, buffalo, oxen, rabbits or "exotic" animals, for example, camels, emus, ostriches, or any animal which a farmer keeps and uses either for food or pleasure. Sometimes animal scientists include in this term also poultry, such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, but they include neither honey bees nor fish within the term "livestock". However, poultry farming and beekeeping are important branches of agriculture as well as aquaculture.

There are over a hundred large land mammals in the world but man has domesticated only few types into livestock. There are two main requirements for domestication of mammals: 1) the availability of feed which a farmer can easily control and provide; 2) a rapid rate of reproduction. As cattle, sheep and horses are herbivorous mammals, farmers try to keep these domestic animals on pastures. However, farmers often grow either cereals or other agricultural crops as additional feed for their animals. Such ruminant animals as cattle, sheep and goats are important for people because they convert large quantities of grasses or other types of feeds, as well as non-protein nitrogen into meat, milk and wool. Poultry also convert feed efficiently into protein.

Historically, livestock and poultry have provided the following benefits to humanity: meat, eggs, dairy products, raw materials, fertiliser, labour, management of land.

4) Meat and eggs. In many countries livestock replaced wild game
as the main source of animal protein because only livestock convert various food sources into human food. Poultry provide people with white meat as well as with eggs.

5) Dairy products. People process milk of cows, sheep and goats into a variety of valuable dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and koumiss.

6) Raw materials. Livestock produce useful raw materials, for
example, horses and cows provide leather, poultry produce feather and down, sheep and goats provide wool for textile industry.

7) Fertiliser. Livestock leave behind manure which farmers spread on fields and this increases yields of crops many times. Historically, plant and animal farming have been closely linked. Labour. In modern agriculture neither cattle nor horses are the main source of mechanical energy. However, in some poor countries people are still using livestock as draft cattle.

8) Management of land. Sometimes farmers use the grazing of livestock as a way to control weeds.

When a farmer is planning to rear livestock, he usually chooses the most suitable type for the local conditions. Both climate and type of land, as well as local traditions influence a farmer's choice.

 

Vocabulary List

aquaeulture — аквакультура

availability— наличие (доступность)

a rate of reproduction — зд. скорость воспроизводства

the following benefits to humanity — следующие выгоды для челове­чества

management — зд. возделывание

wild game — дикие животные

feather, down — перо, пух

a way to control weeds— способ борьбы с сорняками

Exercise1. Answer the following questions:

10.What are the two main branches of agriculture?

11.Why is animal husbandry so important now?

12.What does the term "animal husbandry" include?

13.What are the requirements for domestication of animals?

14.Why are ruminant animals valuable for animal husbandry?

15.Why is poultry farming an important branch of agriculture?

16.What herbivorous animals do you know?

17.What benefits do livestock and poultry provide for man?

18.How does a farmer choose the type of livestock for his farm?

Exercise2. Think and answer:

1. In what countries does the agricultural sector play the most important role in the economy: in developed countries (the USA, Canada and the UK) or in developing African/Asian countries?

2. What industries does animal husbandry provide with raw materials?

2. What branches of agriculture are important in Russia?