Logical Devices: Sentence Adverbials

Sentence adverbial are devices, which organize ideas and help the reader to follow the logic of the text. Sentence adverb (or adverbial phrase) can connect

- a sentence with another sentence. E.g. Short rotation coppice (SRC) can provide a renewable energy source that produce a very low net CO₂ emission and low levels of nitrogen and sulphur pollutants. In addition to these benefits, SRC crops require a reduced chemical input when compared to conventional arable crops.

- a sentence with the whole text. E.g. The drive towards energy security and away from acute energy dependence can have positive and negative environmental effects, depending on the choice of resources, solution and energy technology. In summary, integrating environmental consideration into sectoral policies, such as security, defence, energy and foreign affairs, increases scope for security concerns and improves the climate of intersectoral policy-making.

 

A comma follows sentence adverbial appearing at the beginning of a sentence. E.g. Since Selye’s report, the mineralocorticoid hormone (aldosterone) has rarely been connected with the stress response.

Categories of Sentence Adverbials

TIME
after that afterwards as yet at first at last at once at present at the moment at the same time before that beforehand by that time	earlier eventually ever since (then) finally first* from then on hitherto immediately in the end in the meantime lastly later on	meanwhile next* now* previously simultaneously since then so far soon subsequently then* until then within minutes / days

Note: * when these adverbials are used in initial position, they are not followed by a comma

 

ORDERING POINTS; ADDING INFORMATION
above all additionally again also as we shall see later as well as well as that	besides first (ly), second (ly) first of all finally for one / other thing furthermore in addition	in the first place last(ly0 more (most) importantly moreover next on top of that what is more

 

CAUSE AND EFFECT; REASON AND RESULT; INFERENCE
accordingly as a result because of this	consequently for this / that reason hence*	if so in that case otherwise so* that is why* then*

 

 

CONCLUDING, SUMMARIZING; GENERALIZING
all in all* altogether as a rule basically broadly speaking by and large essentially generally in brief	in conclusion in general in other words in short mostly on average on balance on the whole	overall so* then to some extent to sum up ultimately

 

 

GIVING EXAMPLES; FOCUSING
among others foe example for instance	in particular mainly particularly	primarily principally specifically thus

 

REFORMULATING; CLARIFYING
actually al least I mean	indeed in fact in other words	rather/ or rather that is (to say) to put in another way

 

CHANGING SUBJECT; REFERRING TO SUBJECT
anyhow anyway as far as … is concerned as for… as to as regards at any rate	by the way incidentally now for regarding speaking of	talking about that brings me to… that reminds me… to turn to… with reference to

 

COMPARING, CONTRASTING; ALTERNATIVES, CONCESSIONS
admittedly all the same alternatively and yet* at the same time but* by comparison by contrast by the same token conversely despite this	equally even so however in comparison with in spite of this in the same way instead likewise nevertheless nonetheless of course	on the contrary on (the) one hand on the other hand or* similarly still then again though true yet* whereas

 

Grammatical Devices

Grammatical devices for the cohesion are pronouns, demonstrative adjective and article. Observe the following examples.

1. A modern view of chaos theory was written by Gollub and Solomon. They wrote, “A chaotic system is defined as one that shows sensitivity to initial condition”.

2. Every disturbance in the body, either real or imagined, evokes a stress response. Essential to the stress response are neurons in the paraventricular nucleus.

3. The mapping of E ₈ may well have unforeseen implications in mathematics and physics which won’t be evident for years to come. This is an exciting breakthrough. This project will be invaluable for future mathematicians and scientists.

4. It is also important to draw a distinction between those radioelements that occur naturally and those that do not, such as technetium and the tsansuranics. In the case of the former, reference may be made to the known geochemistry of the element in a given environmental medium.

5. Results emerging from site/yield experiments with SRC varieties planted in both mixture and monoclonal plots have been variable. The experiments contain row-by-row mixtures of three poplar or three willow varieties.

6. After expanding eastwards over the last decade, the EU seems to be experiencing “enlargement fatigue”. Its capacity to absorb additional members was compromised.

7. Since the disintegration of the USSR various international bodies involving [art of post-Soviet states have been set up. The first of these, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was established in 1991.

 

Lexical Devices

Lexical coherence is achieved with the help of

- Synonyms, antonyms (limited possibility in scientific papers). E. g. Ideally, SRC should be grown on a medium textured soil, which is aerated but still holds a good supply of moisture. Results emerging from the site/yield project suggest that heavier brown earths with high clay content are well suited to SRC.

- Derivatives. E.g. In the case of dispersed contamination, a rigorous assessment of the actual and potential pathways is required to determine the optimal action. Since the field is continuously developing, formal methods to assess the applicability and effectiveness of techniques have been developed.

- Hyperonyms and hyponyms. E.g. The anticipated performance of a given technique can be simulated and compared with similar results from other techniques to facilitate the selection. Both willow and poplar are very palatable to a range of mammals. Rabbits and hares, in particular, can cause serious damage soon after planting.

- Equivalent expressions. E.g. While mathematicians have known for a long time about the beauty ant the uniqueness of E ₈ , we physicists have come to appreciate its exceptional role only more recently.

- Reiteration of the term. E.g. Activation of intracellular corticosteroid receptors in neurons may induce a variety of cellular responses, influencing diverse processes such as cellular structure, energy metabolism, or signal transduction. Changes in cellular structure usually develop over the course of several days, whereas effects on energy metabolism or signal transduction may become apparent within hours.

 

Task 1 Read the following paragraphs and find all devices of coherence.

1. Studies at the cellular level have supplied ample evidence that shifts in corticosteroid receptor occupation, such as occur after an acute stress or due to circadian variations in steroid level, exert a delayed and long-lasting control over excitability in limbic brain regions. They do so in a context-dependent manner, i.e., when neurons are shifted from their basal condition through actions of neurotransmitters. The interdependency of steroid and neurotransmitter action s fits very well with a molecular mechanism depending on protein-protein interactions rather than one acting via steroid receptor immers binding to a hormone-responsive element.

2. As already pointed out, internal and external security challenges are closely linked. On the one hand, internal weaknesses increase vulnerability to external threats, and on the other hand external pressure often shape economic and political reforms with their social, environmental and other security repercussions. Energy, among other issues, is at the core of both internal and external security challenges in the region.

3. According to Brian Conrey, Executive Director of the American Institute of Mathematics, “ The E ₈ calculation is notable for both its magnitude as well as the way it was achieved. The mapping of E ₈ breaks the mold of mathematicians typically known for their solitary style. People will look back on this project as a significant landmark and because of this breakthrough; mathematics will now be viewed as a team sport”.

4. While the main reason for growing SRC is to achieve a financial return, other benefits such as increased biodiversity, use as a shelter or screen or as a game cover may influence the timing and pattern of harvesting. This may lead to harvests having to be made outside the 2 to 4-year bracket mentioned above.

5. The removal, transport and disposal of residual waste may result in environmental impacts and risks at locations other than those of the original contamination. There is, for example, little benefit in removing a contaminant that is well fixed in a low volume of coil, only to produce a high volume of an aqueous waste with the contaminant in a soluble or mobile form. In addition, the remediation techniques chosen may generate large quantities of secondary waste and pose risks of exposure of the public or operators that exceed the risks of quiescent contamination.

6. The good news about chaos is that it is natural. It is a key component of the universe. Chaos may cause uncertainty but it also creates the opportunities that create hope and change. Teachers need to prepare for chaos and accept uncertainty as a natural condition. Teachers cannot control the entire universe. However, they can make impacts on the small slice of the universe they reside in despite all the chaos evident in it.

7. In general it might be only noted, that the intervention criteria applied in the republic are stricter, than international ones. For instance, we would like to point out, that such intervention as resettlement is widely used in the republic when averted annual dose is above 1 mSv, while under the international norms permanent resettlement is envisaged only when averted dose rate is 30 mSv/ month, provided that these dose rates will de the same for 1-2 years. The same protective measure is envisaged when lifetime dose is 1 Sv and higher.

 

 

 

Unit 5

Concrete Support

A bit of theory! One of the biggest problems in student writing is that student writers often fail to prove their points. They fail because they do not support their points with concrete details. Their papers are too often full of opinions and generalizations without the factual details needed to support them. A successful paragraph contains concrete support for the topic sentence. Support your topic sentence by using specific and factual details. Facts are objective statements of truth. Ex., At sea level, water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

Women live longer than men.

Lung cancer among women is increasing.

Opinions are subjective statements based on a person’s beliefs or attitudes.

Ex., Men are better drivers than women.

Engineering students do not need to take a lot of English courses.

Americans are only superficially friendly.

 

Task 1 Decide whether each of the following statements is a fact or an opinion.

1. Smoking is relaxing and, therefore, enjoyable.

2. Dr. Kathleen Parker, a well-known cancer specialist, recently admitted in an interview, “Although I see the harmful effects of smoking nearly every day in my work, I still enjoy relaxing with a cigarette after dinner.”

3. Early in the next decade, more women than men will die of lung cancer, according to the American cancer Society.

4. Smoking is attracting more and more adults.

5. According to a recent New York Times article, cigarette smoking is increasing among adults in their forties as well as among the college educated and those earning more than $35,000 annually.

6. Red-light runners must take a driver’s education class. Then they will become safer drivers.

7. Red-light runners cause scores of accidents, including deaths and injuries as well as millions of dollars in damages.

8. Nationwide, the number of red-light running accidents increased 18 percent from 1991 through 1995. In 1991, 2,425 deaths resulted, and in 1995, the number rose to 2,866.

 

There are several kinds of concrete supporting details that you can use to support or prove your topic sentence. Among the most common are examples, statistics, and quotations. Using quotations and writing paraphrasing and summaries of information from outside sources are important tools in academic writing. To write your research papers, you must find information about your topic in books, periodicals, encyclopedias, and similar sources. It is important to learn how to use information from outside sources without committing plagiarism.

1. Quotations. There are two types of quotations: direct and indirect. In a direct quotation, another person’s exact words are repeated and are enclosed in quotation marks.

Reporting Verbs and Phrases are as follows

According to insist report suggest

Claim maintain say write

Declare mention state

 

Here are some rules for their use:

1. Reporting verbs can appear before, in the middle of, or after a quotation

Dr. Karsten said, “___________________.” “________________,” the doctor stated, ”__________________.” “__________________,” declared the president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

2. Reporting verbs can be used with or without the subordinator as.

As a spokesperson for the IOC suggested, “______________________.”

A spokesperson for the IOC suggested,”_________________________.”

3. Reporting verbs may be in any tense.

As the IOC stated in its report after the 1996 games in Atlanta, “_______.”

The IOC states in its report after the 1996 games in Atlanta, __________.”

As the IOC has always insisted,”_______________________________.”

4. The reporting phrase according to can be used in place of a reporting verb. Use quotation marks if you are quoting someone’s words exactly.

According to the OIC,”________________________.”

In indirect quotations, the speaker’s (or writer’s) words are reported indirectly. Indirect quotations are introduced by the same reporting verbs. The tense of verbs in indirect quotations is affected by the tense of the reporting verb. To change a direct quotation to an indirect quotation:

1. Omit the quotation marks.

2. Add the subordinator that (You may omit that if the meaning is clear.)

3. Change the verb tense if necessary. Follow the sequence of tenses rules.

4. Change pronouns if necessary.

Good writers use both direct and indirect quotations.

 

Task 2 Read the model paragraph and find the one indirect quotation. Does it follow the sequence of tenses rule? Change all of the direct quotations in the paragraph into indirect quotations.

Drugs and the Olympic Games

It is no secret that performance-enhancing drugs have been used by Olympic athletes for decades. In 1993, the head of the International Olympic Committee’s medical commission, Prince Alexandre de Merode of Belgium, stated, “I believe that as many as 10% of all Olympic athletes are regular users of performance-enhancing drugs” (qtd. in Bamberger and Yager 63). Despite rigorous drug testing of Olympic athletes, the use of banned performance-enhancing substances has become more widespread than ever. It is clear that if athletes want to win, they must consider using drugs. In a 1997 article in Sports Illustrated magazine, Dutch physician Michel Karsten is quoted as saying, “there may be some sportsmen who can win gold medals without taking drugs but there are very few.” According to Dr.Karsten, who says he has prescribed anabolic steroids to hundreds of world-class athletes over the last twenty-five years,” If you are specially gifted, you may win once, but from my experience you cannot continue to win without drugs. The field is just too filled with drug users.” (qtd. in Bamberger and Yager 62).

 

Task 3 Write a short paragraph that develops the topic you are given below. Use the quotations for support. You may use them either as direct or indirect quotations. Include some additional supporting sentences and transition signals to connect the ideas and make your paragraph flow smoothly.

1) Topic sentence The increased use of computers in business has been accompanied by a costly increase in computer crime.

Main point Computer criminals cost business a lot of money.

Quotation “The financial losses to business from computer thefts will exceed $15 billion in 1998.”

Main point Computer criminals steal not only money but also information.

Quotation “It’s not just the money they steal; they steal data, and data is power.”

Source A book by Meredith Bruce, Cybercrime, page 185

 

2) Topic sentence Computer cannot be compared to human brains.

Main point The human brain is more powerful than any computer.

Quotation “It has been estimated that the information processing capacity of even the most powerful supercomputer is equal to the nervous system of a snail – a tiny fraction of the power available to the supercomputer inside the human skull.”

Main point The kinds of processing are different, too.

Quotation “Computers find it easy to remember a 25-digit number but find it hard to summarize the gist of [children’s story] “Little Red Riding Hood,” and humans find it hard to remember the number but easy to summarize the story.”

Main point Human brains also have the advantage of being inside humans.

Quotation “They [human brains] can soak up terabytes of information over the years as the human interact with other humans and with the environment.”

Source An article by Steven Pinker in U.S. News and World Report, August 18-25, 1997, page 64.

 

Task 4 Write a short paragraph that develops the topic you have chosen as the topic of your research. Add all the supporting details you can, such as examples, statistics, direct and indirect quotations. Don’t forget to mention the source of the quotations.

Unit 6