Население. Понятие население и гражданства

Под населением чаще всего понимают совокупность индивидов, проживающих в данный момент на территории того или иного государства.

Население любого государства состоит из следующих категорий: граждан данного государства, иностранцев (так называемых обычных иностранцев, т.е. не пользующихся иммунитетами и привилегиями), лиц без гражданства, лиц имеющих двойное гражданство.

Гражданство – это устойчивая правовая связь физического лица с государством, выражающаяся в совокупности их взаимных прав и обязанностей. Иногда гражданство называют принадлежностью лица к государству. Гражданство – устойчивая правовая связь, поскольку даже в случае выезда гражданина за границу его гражданство автоматически, как правило, не прекращается.

В законодательстве некоторых государств существуют различные термины для обозначения принадлежности физических лиц к государству. В странах с республиканской формой правления обычно употребляется термин «гражданство», в странах с монархической формой правления все еще встречается термин «подданство». В американском, британском, а также в законодательстве некоторых других государств существует множественность терминов, обозначающих принадлежность лица к государству.

Например, наряду с терминами «citizen» (гражданин) и «subject» (подданный) в англо-американской теории и практике широко распространен также термин «national», который может быть переведен как «лицо, обладающее определенной национальной принадлежностью» (в юридическом смысле).

Гражданство регулируется внутренним законодательством государства. Возможно отсутствие закона о гражданстве в каком-либо государстве. Но дело не в формальном законодательном регулировании гражданства. Гражданство – понятие, неразрывно связанное с государственностью. Отсутствие закона о гражданстве не означает отсутствия самого гражданства, хотя и может осложнить ведение внешних сношений. Так или иначе, регламентация гражданства – внутренний вопрос, сфера внутренней компетенции государства. Условия приобретения и утраты гражданства устанавливаются внутренним законодательством государства. Поскольку каждое государство в данной области действует самостоятельно, неизбежны столкновения (коллизии) законов о гражданстве различных государств. Такие коллизии могут быть источником трений и конфликтов международного характера. Для их ликвидации или предотвращения государства часто прибегают к заключению международных договоров, то есть вырабатывают соответствующие нормы международного права.

 

TEST IV

1. Skim the text and say whether the statements that follow are true or false.

 

PARTS OF TERRITORY

Territorial sovereignty extends principally over land territory. States also exercise jurisdiction over appurtenances of land territory, including: • the subsoil beneath the state's territory is considered a part of land territory, e.g., a subsoil rich in minerals is under state jurisdiction; • the airspace above state territory, e.g., planes flying over State X's territory are considered to be in State X; and • the territorial sea: the belt of sea adjacent to the coast is a part of state territory too. The state also exercises its sovereignty over the airspace and subsoil of the territorial sea.

Some territories cannot be subject to the sovereignty of any state. The high seas, the outer space, and Antarctica are areas outside the sovereignty of any state and open to the common enjoyment of all states according to international regimes organized by several multilateral treaties. The general principle ruling the high seas, for example, is that every state, whether coastal or landlocked, may enjoy the "four freedoms of the seas" including: freedom of navigation, freedom of fishing (according specific regulation on conservation and management of the living resources), freedom to lay submarine pipelines and cables, and freedom to fly over the high seas. These freedoms should be exercised by all states with reasonable regard to the interests of other states. To the same extent, the exploration and use of outer space, the moon and celestial bodies are to be carried for the benefit and in the interests of all countries." The 1959 Antarctica Treaty was adopted to ensure that this territory was used only for peaceful purposes and opened to free scientific exploration. Are expressly prohibited under the terms of the treaty: any activity of military nature, nuclear explosions, disposal of radio-active waste material, and claims to territorial sovereignty.

True / False statements:

1. Only land territory is under the jurisdiction of a state.

2. State’s appurtenances include the territorial sea, airspace above the territory and subsoil beneath the land territory.

3. The sovereignty over the airspace above the territorial sea is exercised by the state adjacent to it.

4. International treaties organize the common enjoyment of the high seas and outer space.

5. The capacity of a state to lay cables on the sea-bed is not included into the ‘four freedoms of the seas’.

6. The exploration and use of outer space may be exercised according to bilateral agreements.

7. The 1959 Antarctica Treaty ensured free scientific exploration of Antarctica and outer space.

8. The territories with international regime are open to acquisition by any state and states can claim sovereignty over them.

2. Suggest Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations from the text.

Appurtenances, subsoil beneath the territory, adjacent to the coast, the outer space, open to the common enjoyment, the high seas, coastal or landlocked state, the living resources, celestial bodies, disposal of radio-active waste material, claims to territorial sovereignty.

 

3. Complete the following passage, using suitable forms of the words below.

 

A boundary is usually described as the 1) ….. line on the surface of earth separating the territory of one state from another. There is no general rule for determining boundaries. State 2) ….. boundaries are usually determined by express or 3) ……… consent with states neighbours on a case by case basis. Boundaries are not necessarily defined with certainty; many states are still 4) ….. on the precise line of their boundaries and boundaries remain one of the most disputed 5) ….. in international law. Some legal writers establish a 6) …… distinction between natural and artificial boundaries. Natural boundaries would of mountains, 7) ……, the seashore, lakes and deserts. In the author's opinion, most (if not all) international boundaries are artificial. The 8) ….. of natural boundaries is a concept which is arbitrary, and is frequently put forward by states when they think their territory should be extended 9) ….. of other states. Mountains, rivers and deserts do not constitute an obligatory line separating 10) …... Many populations live on both sides of a range of mountains, e.g. Basques in the Pyrenees or Tibetans in the Himalayas or a river, e.g. 11) …., Euphrates.

land, at the expense, firm, tacit, notion, the Nile, disputing, imaginary, rivers, people, issues

4. Make the following microtexts complete by translating the words and phrases in brackets. Then entitle each of the texts and translate them in written form.

State (границы), not only across land but both upwards into the airspace and downwards into the earth, are most often (определяются) by agreements between the parties, rather than being dictated by principles of international law.

There are separate sets of treaties and agree­ments (в отношении) airspace versus (космического пространства).

(общая точка зрения) is that a state has complete and exclusive (право) over the airspace above its territory.

The (доминирующий) theory in the field of outer space is that every state may (исследовать) and use outer space, free of national (присвоение) by another state.

International rivers may flow (по) a state's territory but not be (подпадать) to the absolute authority of the state. An international river has the following(черты): it is (судоходный); it flows into the sea; it flows through the territory of two or more states or forms the boundary between them; and an international act (объявлять) it to be an international river.

The sea is divided into several zones: (внутренний) waters, the territorial sea, the (прилежащий) zone, the continental shelf, the (исключительный) economic zone and high seas.

5. Comment on the following quotations in writing. Make a list of arguments for and against them.

6. Summarize the text in writing using the following words:

 

air service

authorization

to give/grant authorization

to receive authorization

to revoke smb.'s authorization

authorization by implication

authorization of

freedom of overflight

freedom of the air

freedom of transit

lessee

to commence prosecution

for non-traffic purposes

 

Jurisdiction over airspace and aircraft

As has been indicated above, a state has exclusive jurisdiction over the airspace immediately above its territory. Therefore, unless otherwise agreed, a state may prohibit all aircraft movement over its territory and may take any action necessary to preserve its sovereignty. An invasion of airspace is no different from an invasion of territory. Of necessity, however, this position of principle has long since been modified by international treaty and a general set of rules exists concerning freedom of overflight and transit passage.

The basic principles were formulated at the Chicago Conference on International Civil Aviation 1944 and are to be found in the 1944 Chicago Convention on Inter­national Civil Aviation. This came into force in 1974 and as at 1 August 2004 there were 188 parties. Article 1 of this Convention reflects the general standard of customary law by affirming that each state has 'complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory'. The Convention then provides certain excep­tions to this which, generally, permit civil aircraft, not engaged in scheduled inter­national air service, to fly into or over the territory of a contracting state. However, by Art. 6, no scheduled international air service may be operated without the authorisation of the state, although under the Chicago International Air Services `Transit Agreement 1944, scheduled international air services enjoy the 'two freedoms' of the privilege to fly across the territory of a contracting state without landing and the privilege to land for non-traffic purposes. Together, these treaties set the standard for the control of non-military aircraft, although they make no provision for the actual conduct of scheduled passenger services. This in turn is regulated by a series of bilateral agreements, with general safety standards and navigational matters regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).

Under Art. 17 of the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation, aircraft have the nationality of the state in which they are registered and they cannot be validly registered in more than one state (Art. 18). Moreover, under the Tokyo Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft 1963, the state of registration is competent to exercise jurisdiction over all offences and acts committed on board while the aircraft is in flight, on the high seas or in any other area outside the territory of another state. However, under the Tokyo Convention, other states may have criminal jurisdiction over offences committed on board when the aircraft is in any of these areas if the offence has an effect on the territory of the state, its security, or has been committed by or against a national of the state or is a breach of flight regulations or is necessary to ensure observance of treaty obligations (e.g. Scotland and the Lockerbie case). Obviously, if the aircraft is present in another state, that state will also have jurisdiction under the territorial principle.

As a result of concern at the increase of hijacking and other acts detrimental (причиняющий ущерб) to the safety of international air transport, another set of treaties dealing with acts committed on board aircraft has been concluded. The main body of law is to be found in the Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft 1970 and this is supplemented by the ICAO Montreal Convention for the Suppres­sion of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of International Civil Aviation 1971, the application of which was the issue in the Libya v UK, Libya v US actions in the ICJ. Under the Hague Convention, each contracting party undertakes to make the 'offence' of hijacking 'punishable by severe penalties'. The Convention also creates a series of rules establishing the principles of jurisdiction over such 'offences'. Gen­erally, the parties must take steps to establish jurisdiction over the offence when it takes place on an aircraft registered in their territory, when the aircraft lands in their territory, when the lessee of an aircraft has his place of business or residence in their state or when the offender is present in their territory. Moreover, every state in which an offender is found is under a duty to take him into custody (надзор) and, if they do not extradite him, to commence prosecution. A similar position on jurisdiction is adopted in the Montreal Convention.

The Hague Convention, then, obliges states to create (вызывать) the offence of hijacking in their national law and the United Kingdom has done this by virtue of the Hijacking Act 1971. In fact, the Hague Convention goes a long way to establishing air piracy as an offence of universal jurisdiction and, for the parties at least, this is ensured by Art. 7. The weakness of the Convention is that it does not impose a Positive obligation to extradite an offender, although the offence is to be an 'extra­ditable offence' within existing treaties. Strictly, of course, extradition would not be necessary if all states exercised their universal jurisdiction. Yet, the fact that hijacking may be seen as a 'political' crime means that some states do not regard hijackers as offenders at all.

The jurisdictional rules contained in the Convention provide a reasonably comprehensive system but, as always, the actual exercise of the jurisdiction depends as much on the will of states as on the granting of rights under inter­national law. An excellent example of the multi-sided problems that can occur in relation to offences committed on board aircraft is the Lockerbie incident.

 

 

7. Reveal the essence of a concept of International territories. Answer the questions:

 

1. What does ‘territory’ mean in International law?

2. What are the kinds of territories?

3. Do states exercise their sovereignty over the airspace and subsoil of the territorial sea?

4. What international documents govern the common enjoyment of these territories?

5. Is there any difference between coastal and landlocked states in their enjoyment of territories with an international regime?

6. What are the four freedoms of the seas?

7. What are the territories with a mixed regime?

8. Give a definition of the term ‘boundaries’.

9. What are the two kinds of boundaries?

10. Why do boundaries remain one of the most disputed issues in International law? Can boundaries be changed? In what way?

TEST V

1. Make the literary translation of the text.