Functions and Powers of Administrative Agencies

 

1. Administrative agencies come into existence when legislative bodies recognize that they cannot achieve desired economic and social goals within the existing governmental structure. The necessity for administrative agencies is based on the fact that they can assemble experts who focus on one area and continuously work toward achieving legislatively determined objectives.

2. Legislatures establish an administrative agency by enacting a statute called an ‘ enabling act ’. In addition to creating the agency, this act determines its organizational structure, defines its functions and powers, and establishes basic operational standards and guidelines. These standards and guidelines help appropriate courts control the abuse of discretion. Courts also use written directives to assess whether an agency is operating according to the legislature’s intent. Agencies can also be created by executive orders authorized by statute.

3. Administrative agencies perform a variety of functions. For example, they monitor businesses and professions in order to prevent the use of unfair methods of competition and the use of deceptive practices; they help ensure that manufacturers produce pure medications and that food products are safe to consume; and they function to protect society from environmental pollution and insider stock-trading practices.

4. Most administrative agencies perform their functions by exercising three legislatively delegated powers: rulemaking power, investigative (executive) power, and adjudicative power. Although the separation of powers doctrine states that the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government should not exist in the same person or group of persons, the courts have ruled that combining such functions within a single agency does not conflict with the doctrine.

5. Rulemaking power. The rulemaking power of administrative agencies covers a vast range of business and government functions. Rulemaking is often referred to as the quasi-legislative function of administrative agencies to make, alter, or repeal rules and regulations to the extent specified in their enabling statutes. The enabling acts set general standards, authorize the agencies to determine the content of the regulations, and provide general sanctions for noncompliance with the rules. A federal agency possessing the rulemaking power is obliged to comply withduly established procedures when making and promulgating rules, and the rules themselves must be necessary for the agency to fulfill its statutory duties.

6. There are essentially three types of administrative rules: substantive, interpretive, and procedural:

– Substantive rules are used to establish and implement policies that assist an agency in accomplishing its statutorily established objectives.

– An interpretive rule is used to explain an agency’s interpretation of an ambiguous statute, or its understanding of the meaning of an important term that the legislature has neglected to define. Although interpretive rules are not enforceable to the same extent as laws, courts will often find interpretive rules persuasive if the agency has relied on its own expertise and experience in the rule’s development, and the agency’s actions are within its statutory scope of authority.

– Procedural rules are developed to establish standard operating procedures within an agency.

7. Investigative power. Agencies cannot operate without access to facts for intelligent regulation and adjudication. Thus, the investigative power is conferred on practically all administrative agencies. Statutes commonly grant an agency the power to use several methods to carry out its fact-finding functions, such as requiring reports from regulated businesses, conducting inspections, and using judicially enforced subpoenas.

8. The power to investigate is one of the functions that distinguishes agencies from courts. This power is usually exercised in order to perform other primary functions properly. However, some agencies are created primarily to perform the fact-finding or investigative function. Like any other power or function of the government, it must be exercised so as not to violate constitutionally protected rights. The constitutional limitations require that (1) the investigation is authorized by law and undertaken for a legitimate purpose, (2) the information sought is relevant, (3) the demand for information is sufficiently specific and not unreasonably burdensome, and (4) the information sought is not privileged.

9. Adjudicative power. When an agency’s action involves the rulemaking function, it need not make use of judicial procedures. The adjudicative power delegated to administrative agencies, however, requires it to make determinations of a targeted person ’s legal rights, duties, and obligations and for this reason adjudicatory hearings resemble a court’s decision-making process.

10. Before sanctions can be imposed, an alleged violator is entitled to an administrative hearing that is conducted according to the procedures specified in the enabling act and that complies with the due process requirements of the constitution.

 

основной источник информации: Schubert F.A. Introduction to Law and the Legal System. Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2012.

 

4.2.1. Слова из текста:

come into existence – возникать, появляться

assemble – собирать, объединять

legislatively determined objectives – цели, установленные в законодательном порядке; задачи, определённые законодателем

enact – издавать, принимать, вводить в действие

enabling act – уполномочивающий акт, законодательный акт о предоставлении полномочий

guidelines – руководящие указания, основные принципы

abuse of discretion – произвол, злоупотребление правом действия по усмотрению; злоупотребление дискреционным правом

monitor – осуществлять текущий контроль, проверять

unfair methods of competition – методы недобросовестной конкуренции

deceptive practices – нечестная практика, мошенничество

pure medications – качественные медикаменты

environmental pollution – загрязнение окружающей среды

insider stock-trading – внутренняя торговля акциями (незаконные сделки по купле-продаже акций, совершаемые, когда покупатель или продавец располагает какой-л. конфиденциальной (инсайдерской) информацией о компании-эмитенте, напр., сведениями о предстоящем поглощении компании)

rulemaking – регламентация, нормотворчество

investigative [ın'vestıgətıv] – занимающийся расследованием или изучением, относящийся к расследованию

adjudicative [ə'dʒu:dıkeıtıv] – судебный

state – формулировать, зафиксировать, утверждать

noncompliance – несоблюдение, неисполнение

comply with – подчиняться, соблюдать

duly established – созданный должным образом, принятый в установленном порядке

substantive ['sʌbstəntıv] – материально-правовой

interpretive – объяснительный, пояснительный, толковательный

procedural [prə'si:dʒərəl] – процессуальный, относящийся к процедуре

objective – цель, задача

ambiguous – неопределённый, неоднозначный, двусмысленный

neglect – забывать, не обращать внимания, не учитывать

persuasive – убедительный

rely on – основываться, рассчитывать на

expertise and experience – экспертный анализ и опыт работы

development – разъяснение

statutory scope of authority – предусмотренный законом объём полномочий

access to – доступ к

grant – предоставить, разрешать

fact-finding – расследование обстоятельств, установление и оценка фактов

judicially enforced subpoena [dʒu:'dıʃəlı ın'fо:rst səb'pi:nə] – повестка о явке свидетеля, исполнение которой обеспечено санкцией суда

distinguish – отличать, проводить различие

properly – должный образом, надлежащим образом, как следует

undertake – выполнять, предпринимать

legitimate purpose – законная цель

sought – искомый, необходимый

relevant – относящийся к делу, важный

unreasonably burdensome – необоснованно обременительный

privileged – конфиденциальный; не подлежащий разглашению или оглашению в суде, составляющий профессиональную тайну

make determination – принимать решение

targeted person – интересующее лицо; лицо, в отношении которого выполняются определенные действия

resemble – быть похожим, иметь сходство

alleged violator – предполагаемый нарушитель

4.3. Выполните следующие задания:

1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 3 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке. Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по содержанию прочитанного текста.

 

Local Government

 

1. Every modern state needs a system of local administration. Even if all important decisions were taken at the centre it would be necessary to have local agencies to implement them, issuing commands and services to local populations, and some subsidiary decision-making would have to be delegated to these agencies.

2. The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Common names for local government entities include state, province, region, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire and village. However all these names are often used informally in different countries and local government is the legal part of central government.

3. It would be generally agreed that local government has to achieve the following main objectives:

– to reduce the load on the centre; central government in the modern state would be greatly overloaded if the burden of administration were not shared with local institutions;

– to provide opportunities for democratic choice and popular participation in the government of local areas; in this way government can be made more accountable to local communities, and ordinary citizens can directly participate in the democratic process and in public life;

– to achieve more responsive and rational decision-making through institutions which are well informed about local conditions and aware of local needs and demands; specific policies can be developed to match local circumstances, and national policies can be adapted to the needs of different areas and communities.

4. Local government roles and responsibilities. The work of local government is varied, but it touches almost all areas of our day to day life as citizens – whether we live in cities, towns or country areas.

5. The roles and responsibilities of local government differs from state to state, but generally include:

– infrastructure and property services, including local roads, bridges, footpaths, drainage, waste collection and management;

– provision of recreation facilities, such as parks, sports fields and stadiums, golf courses, swimming pools, sport centers, halls, camping grounds and caravan parks;

– health services such as water and food inspection, immunization services, toilet facilities, noise control and meat inspection and animal control;

– community services, such as child care, aged care and accommodation, community care and welfare services;

– building services, including inspections, licensing, certification and enforcement;

– planning and development approval;

– administration of facilities, such as airports and aerodromes, ports and marinas, cemeteries, parking facilities and street parking;

– cultural facilities and services, such as libraries, art galleries and museums;

– water and sewerage services;

– other services, such as marketplaces.

6. Local ordinances. A local ordinance is a type of authoritative law, rule, or regulation made by a local government, as opposed to a law made by a state or national government. It is intended to address issues of local concern, and is only effective within the local area limits. When a new ordinance is enacted, it usually becomes part of the local municipal code.

7. Local ordinances generally address issues relating to public health, safety, education and welfare, and they can either prohibit a certain type of behavior. If a person fails to comply with an ordinance, he or she can be fined. In some cases, an offending person will receive warnings before penalties are assessed. Local police and local district attorneys are usually responsible for enforcing a local ordinance.

8. Zoning regulations are among the most common types of local ordinances. Local governments use zoning to control the layout and development of an area. Essentially, zoning laws set rules about whether a piece of real estate can be used for commercial, residential, recreational, or industrial purposes. For instance, a local ordinance may specify that only single-family homes can be built in a certain part of the area. Other zoning rules may specify that a piece of property can only be used for designated commercial or industrial activities, such as factory operations.

9. Fire ordinances usually set certain standards of fire safety that residential and commercial property owners must adhere to, like installing smoke detectors.

10. Other ordinances set rules regarding littering, recycling, garbage removal, and parking. A local ordinance may also address treatment of public areas, such as sidewalks, streets, or parks. In a local park, an ordinance may set the hours that a park is open to the public or indicate that pets must be kept on a leash.

11. Local law governing housing and rental property is usually spelled out in ordinances. For example, a local ordinance may specify that a landlord is required to maintain a certain amount of heat in an apartment complex during the winter months. Cities also commonly regulate noise levels, and an ordinance may ban loud noises in a residential area after a certain time of the night.

12. Local authorities have a certain political claim to autonomy at least for the following reasons:

– they are directly elected and can therefore act as a separation of powers check on central government;

– some local expenditure (in practice about 20%) is raised by local taxation;

– services such as housing, education and environmental control should be administered flexibly in accordance with local circumstances;

– it is desirable in the interests of democracy and individual self-fulfillment for people to have closer contact with governmental bodies than is possible at central government level;

– they generate different political perspectives and healthy disagreement and debate.

13. Finance. The independence of local authorities is directly connected with the extent to which they can raise and spend money. About three-quarters of their income is provided by central government. Local authority income usually derives from the following sources: local taxes; central government grants; borrowing and investment; fees, charges and rents; sales of land.

 

основные источники информации: 1) Turpin C., Nomkins A. British Government and the Constitution: Text and Materials. 6-th ed. NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007; 2) http://www.walga.asn.au; 3) http://www.wisegeek.com/

 

4.3.1. Слова из текста:

implement – приводить в исполнение, восполнять

issue commands and services – выдавать предписания и оказывать услуги

subsidiary [səb'sıdı,erı] – вспомогательный, дополнительный

vary greatly – существенно различаться, значительно разниться

arrangement – классификация, структура

government entity – орган управления

county – округ, графство

prefecture – префектура

township – посёлок

borough – городской микрорайон

parish – приход

shire ['ʃaıə(r)] – графство (округ)

reduce the load – уменьшить нагрузку, сократить объем работы

overloaded – перегруженный

popular participation – участие населения

accountable to – подотчётный

responsive and rational – быстро реагирующий и целесообразный

match – согласовываться, находиться в соответствии

waste collection – вывоз отходов

recreation facilities – места отдыха и развлечений

camping ground – площадка для кемпинга, туристического лагеря

toilet facilities – санитарно-гигиенические условия

meat inspection – контроль за качеством мясных продуктов

community services – общественные службы

aged – престарелые люди

welfare services – система социального обеспечения

planning and development – землеустройство и строительство

marinas – пристань для яхт, гавань

cemetery ['semı,terı] – кладбище

parking facilities – места для стоянки автомобилей

cultural facilities – культурные услуги

sewerage – канализация

address issues – браться за решение вопросов, обращаться к проблемам

fine – штрафовать

offending person – правонарушитель

warning – предупреждение

zoning regulation – градостроительное правило, правило районирования населённых пунктов

layout – плановое расположение

designated – обозначенный, названный

fire ordinance – постановление муниципального органа о правилах пожарной безопасности

littering – выбрасывание отходов

recycling – переработка мусора

garbage removal – вывоз отходов и мусора

housing property – жилищная собственность

rental property – арендуемая собственность

landlord – домовладелец

maintain – поддерживать, сохранять

residential area – жилая зона

separation of powers check – контроль за разделением компетенций, полномочий

expenditure – расходы

flexibly – легко, подвижно, гибко

individual self-fulfillment – личная самореализация, реализация своих способностей, возможностей

healthy disagreement and debate – здравое (полезное) расхождение во мнении и обсуждение своих позиций

derive from – происходить, получать из

government grants – правительственные субсидии, правительственная дотация

borrowing – заимствованные средства, кредит

fees, charges and rents – комиссионные сборы, пошлины и арендная плата

 

Ключевые слова.

1) Просмотрите ключевые слова по теме «Administrative Law».

2) Употребите 7 из них в самостоятельно составленных предложениях, используя материал тематического блока.

3) Будьте готовы прочитать свои предложения студентам группы так, чтобы они смогли на слух перевести их на русский язык.

accountable adjudicative power administration borough bylaw checks and balances consumer protection county cultural facilities due process enabling act environmental protection executive branch expenditure fact-finding government grants health and social services

internal governance interpretive power investigative power judicial review law enforcement legislative branch municipal law ordinance rule of law rulemaking separation of powers to carry out to comply with to enact to implement waste collection zoning regulation

4.5. Передайте основное содержание текстов на тему «Administrative Law», используя типовые фразы из Приложения 2 и опираясь на следующие пункты плана:

– distinctive features of constitutional and administrativelaw;

– two meanings of the term ‘municipal law’;

– functions and powers of administrative agencies;

– local government roles and responsibilities.

Unit 5. Civil Law. – Гражданское право

 

5.1. Выполните следующие задания:

1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 3 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке. Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по содержанию прочитанного текста.

Substantive Civil Law

 

1. Civil cases far outnumber criminal cases, although they generally do not attract the same media attention as criminal trials. Judicial scholar Herbert Jacob summarizes the breadth of the civil law field in Justice in America: “Every broken agreement, every sale that leaves a dissatisfied customer, every uncollected debt, every dispute with a government agency, every libel and slander, every accidental injury, every marital breakup, and every death may give rise to a civil proceeding.”

2. Thus, virtually any dispute between two or more persons may provide the basis for a civil suit. The number of suits is huge, but most of them fall into one of five basic categories: contract law, tort law, property law, law of succession, and family law.

3. Contract law is primarily concerned with voluntary agreements between two or more people. Some common examples include agreements to perform a certain type of work, to buy or sell goods, and to construct or repair homes or commercial and industrial premises. Basic to these agreements are a promise by one party (an offer) and a counter promise (an agreement) by the other party, consideration, legal capacity of the parties and their intention to create legal relations.

4. Although many contracts are relatively simple and straightforward, some complex fields also build on contract law or contract ideas. One such field is commercial law, which focuses primarily on sales involving credit or the installment plan. Commercial law also deals with checks, promissory notes, and other negotiable instruments.

5. Another closely related field is bankruptcy and creditors’ rights. Bankrupt individuals or businesses may go through a process that essentially wipes the slate clean and allows the person filing for bankruptcy to begin again. The bankruptcy process is also designed to ensure fairness to creditors.

6. The final area is the insurance contract, which is important because of its applicability to so many people. The insurance industry is regulated by government agencies and subject to its own distinct rules.

7. Tort law may generally be described as the law of civil wrongs. It concerns conduct that causes injury and fails to measure up to some standard set by society. Actions for personal injury or bodily injury claims are at the heart of tort law, and automobile accidents have traditionally been responsible for a large number of these claims.

8. One of the most rapidly growing subfields of tort law is product liability. This category has become an increasingly effective way to hold corporations accountable for injuries caused by defective foods, toys, appliances, automobiles, drugs, or a host of other products.

9. Another rapidly growing subfield of tort law is medical malpractice. The number of medical malpractice claims has increased even as great advances have been made in medicine. Two ongoing problems in contemporary medicine are the increased risk imposed by new treatments and the impersonal character of specialists and hospitals. Patients today have high expectations, and when a doctor fails them, their anger may lead to a malpractice suit.

10. Property Law. A distinction has traditionally been made between real property and personal property. The former normally refers to real estate – land, houses, and buildings – and has also included growing crops. Almost everything else is considered personal property, including such things as money, jewelry, automobiles, furniture, and bank deposits.

11. Property rights are more complex than mere ownership of something. The notion of property now includes, among several other things, the right to use that property.

12. Law of succession deals with the devolution of property on an heir or heirs upon the death of the owner. The norms of succession lawconsider how property is passed along from one generation to another. Most legal systems recognize a person’s right to dispose of his or her property as he or she wishes. One common way to do this is to execute a will. If a person leaves behind a valid will, the courts will enforce it. However, if someone leaves no will (or has improperly drawn it up), then the person has died intestate, and the state must dispose of the property.

13. The state’s disposition of the property is carried out according to the fixed scheme set forth in the statutes. By law, intestate property passes to the deceased person’s heirs – that is, to his or her nearest relatives.

14. Occasionally, a person who dies intestate has no living relatives. In that situation the property escheats, or passes, to the state in which the deceased resided. Statutes often prohibit the more remote relatives, such as second cousins and great uncles and aunts, from inheriting.

15. Increasingly, people nowadays are preparing wills to ensure that their property is disposed of according to their wishes, not according to a scheme determined by the state. A will is a formal document. It must be very carefully drafted, and as a rule it must be witnessed by several impartial persons.

16. Family law is an area of the law that deals with family-related issues and domestic relations such as marriage, child custody, child abuse, children’s rights, paternity, parental rights and obligations, surrogacy, divorce, annulment, division of assets and liabilities due to divorce, spousal support, child support payments, visitation, adoption and termination of parental rights. These cases usually involve parties who are related by blood or marriage, but family law can affect those in more distant or casual relationships as well.

 

основные источники информации: 1) http://photos.state.gov/libraries/argentina/231771/IRC/legalotln.pdf; 2) http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/; 3) http://www.hg.org/

 

5.1.1. Слова из текста:

far outnumber – значительно превосходить численно

judicial scholar – ученый-правовед

breadth – объём, широкий размах

dissatisfied customer – недовольный потребитель (покупатель)

libel and slander – письменная клевета и устная клевета

accidental injury – повреждение в результате несчастного случая

marital breakup – разрушение семейных отношений

give rise – приводить к возникновению, быть источником

commercial premises – торговое здание с прилегающими постройками и участками

industrial premises – производственные помещения, нежилые помещения

straightforward – ясный, непосредственный, с прямым действием

installment plan – покупка в рассрочку

promissory note – долговое обязательство, простой или прямой вексель

negotiable financial instrument [nı'gəʋʃıəbəl faı'nænʃəl 'ınstrəmənt] – оборотный кредитно-денежный документ

bankruptcy – несостоятельность, банкротство

wipe the slate clean – начать все сызнова, сбросить груз старых ошибок

insurance contract – договор страхования

applicability – применимость, пригодность

measure up – отвечать требованиям, соответствовать требованиям

be at the heart of – лежать в основе

subfield – подотрасль, более узкая область

product liability – ответственность за качество выпускаемой продукции

accountable – ответственный, подотчётный

defective – некачественный, бракованный

medical malpractice – врачебная ошибка, небрежное отношение медицинского работника к своим обязанностям

advances – достижения

ongoing – постоянный, происходящий в настоящее время

growing crops – «хлеба на корню», выращиваемые зерновые

law of succession [lo: ɒv sək'seʃən] – наследственное право

devolution of property – передача права собственности

heir [eə(r)] – наследник

dispose of – распорядиться; приобретать и отчуждать доли, паи

execute a will – оформить завещание, составить завещание

leave behind – оставлять после себя

intestate – не оставив завещания

fixed scheme – установленная процедура

escheat [ıs'tʃi:t] – переходить в казну в качестве выморочного имущества

second cousin – троюродный брат/сестра

great uncle/aunt – двоюродный дедушка/бабушка

impartial – беспристрастный, не являющийся заинтересованным лицом

child custody – попечение и забота о ребенке

child abuse – жестокое обращение с ребёнком

paternity – отцовство

division of assets – разделение имущества

spousal support – денежное содержание бывшего супруга

visitation – посещение ребёнка, оставленного судом у одного из супругов, другим супругом

 

5.2. Выполните следующие задания:

1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 3 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке. Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по содержанию прочитанного текста.

Civil Procedure

 

1. Substance versus Procedure. Many rules and regulations in law are substantive, and others are procedural. We are used to seeing laws as substantive; that is, there is some rule of conduct or behavior that is called for or some action that is prohibited. The substantive rules tell us how to act with one another and with the government. For example, all of the following are substantive rules of law and provide a kind of command or direction to citizens:

– drive not more than fifty-five miles per hour where that speed limit is posted;

– do not drive your motor vehicle through an intersection while a red traffic signal faces the direction you are coming from;

– do not conspire to fix prices with competitors in the market;

– do not discriminate against job applicants or employees on the basis of their race, sex, religion, or national origin;

– do not discharge certain pollutants into the river without first getting a discharge permit.

2. All of these are examples of rules of substantive law, and most people would agree that organized society could not survive and prosper without these and many other similar rules of conduct.

3. These substantive rules are, however, rather empty unless there is some way of enforcing them. It does little good to have a law requiring builder and contractor to perform their contracts in a workman -like manner if building owners have no way to extract payment from the contractor who fails to do the job properly. It will be of little help to you that the law prohibits drunk driving if the law does not also give you some way to force the drunk driver or his insurance company to pay for your car. Rights are meaningless without remedies. Procedural law is the law of remedies, procedural norms are the rules of courts and administrative agencies. They tell us how to proceed if there is a substantive-law problem.

4. Civil procedure concerns a wide range of issues which can be analyzed in the following sequence: jurisdiction; venue; pleading; parties; discovery; trial and post-trial.

5. Jurisdiction is the power or authority that a court has to hear a particular case. When considering the question of jurisdiction, one of the first points that must be determined is whether the case is in rem or in personam action. An in rem action is a lawsuit that is directed against prop­erty rather than against a particular person. An in personam action is a lawsuit in which the plaintiff seeks damages or other relief against a specific person or entity.

6. Venue is a statutory limitation on the geographical loca­tion of litigationto prevent a plaintiff from suing where it would be burdensome for the defendant to appear and defend. Even when jurisdiction and venue are proper, courts may decline to exercise jurisdiction on the ground that the location the plaintiff selected for the case is grossly in­convenient.

7. The essential parts of the complaint are: the caption, jurisdictional allega­tions, body, prayer for relief, and subscription.

(i) Caption must set forth:

– the name of the court;

– the number assigned to the action (stamped by the clerk when the action is filed);

– a designation of the pleading (e.g., "Complaint for Damages"); and

– the names of the parties.

(ii) Jurisdictional allegations give grounds upon which the subject matter jurisdiction of the court is invoked.

(iii) Body is a part of complaint which contains a statement of the facts upon which recovery is sought.

(iv) Prayer for relief is a statement of the relief sought.

(v) Subscription: The complaint must be signed by the lawyer or by the party himself, where he is acting as his own counsel.

8. There are four main stages to a trial. In sequence, they are:

– pleadings – filing the complaint and the defense's motions;

– pretrial – discovery process, finding of facts;

– trial procedure – selection of the jury, opening statements, testimony on behalf of the plaintiffs and testimony on behalf of the defendants, presentation of evidence, concluding arguments, judge's charge to the jury, jury deliberations, announcement of judgment;

– post-trial – allocation of court costs, motions for new trial or appeal, enforcement of civil judgments.

9. Stages of jury trial:

– opening statements of plaintiff and defendant;

– presentation of direct evidenceby the parties, with cross-examination of each witness;

– presentation of rebuttal evidence by plaintiff and defendant;

– argumentsof plaintiff and defendant to jury;

– final closing argument of plaintiff to jury;

– instructions to jury by judge;

– verdict of jury;

– adjudication.

10. Adjudication is usually in the form of the following remedies:

(i) Damages are an order from the court that an amount of money must be paid to the claimant. This is called an award of damages. There are different types of damages awarded by the civil courts;

– Special damages: this is the name for damages which can be calculated specifically;

– General damages: these are for things which can't be easily calculated. This may include an amount for pain and suffering and also for loss of future earnings.

– Exemplary damages (or punitive damages): these are damages which are intended to punish the defendant and not merely to compensate the claimant.

(ii) An injunction may be awarded by the judge where damages would not be an appropriate remedy. It is an order by the court to stop doing something.

(iii) Rectification is an order from the court that a document should be altered to reflect the parties' true intentions. The court will only grant this remedy where is it satisfied that a mistake was made in drawing up the document so that it is no longer a true version of what the parties originally agreed.

(iv) Specific performance is only used in contract law. It is an order of the court to do something if it is envisaged by the contract itself.

(v) Rescission is also only available in contract cases. The aim is to return the parties to the dispute as far as possible to their pre-contractual position.

11. An appeal is the normal procedure for obtaining reviewby a higher court. The function of the appeal is to assure that the trial has been conducted in a lawful manner and that judgments conform to the law. An appeal normally does not involve a retrial of the case, but is limited to a consideration of the rulings by the lower court. An appellate court reviews the facts and evidence presented to the lower court as they are preserved in the trial court record, and no other evidence is considered in making an appellate decision. When the court of appeal agrees to review the case it may either uphold the lower court’s decision (“affirming” the judgment) or reject the lower court’s decision and remand the case with instructions to take whatever steps are necessary to rectify the situation.

 

основные источники информации: 1) http://www.saylor.org/books/; 2) Попов Е.Б., Халюшева Г.Р. Английский язык для студентов-юристов. Саратов: Вузовское образование, 2013. [электронное издание] URL: http://www.iprbookshop.ru/

 

5.2.1. Слова из текста:

be called for – требуется

conspire to fix prices – войти в сговор с целью назначения единых цен

job applicant – претендент на рабочее место

discharge permit – лицензия на выброс загрязняющего вещества

prosper – благоденствовать, преуспевать, процветать

builder and contractor – строительный подрядчик

workman – рабочий, работник, мастер

building owner – заказчик строительства

law of remedies – право о способах и средствах правовой защиты

discovery – предоставление документов суду

post-trial – разбирательство (процедура) после рассмотрения дела судом первой инстанции

in rem action – вещный иск

in personam action – иск в отношении конкретного лица

seek damages – требовать возмещения убытков

seek relief – искать судебной защиты, обращаться за защитой в суд

entity – организация-субъект права, юридическое лицо, самостоятельная правовая единица

venue – место рассмотрения дела, территориальная подсудность, судебный округ

statutory limitation – соответствующий закону, предусматриваемый законом, предписанный законом

burdensome – обременительный; тягостный

proper – правильный; должный; надлежащий, соответствующий, уместный

decline – отклонять, отказывать

caption – заголовок судебного документа, заголовок

designation – обозначение, наименование, маркировка

jurisdictional allegation – относящееся к юрисдикции утверждение, заявление

subject matter – содержание, предмет, существо, предмет изучения

invoke – ссылаться на что-л.; требовать применения чего-л.; применять (норму, статью, оговорку, прецедент)

body – главная, основная часть (документа), текстовый блок; текстовая часть

sought – искомый, желаемый, необходимый, запрашиваемый

prayer for relief – прошение о предоставлении судебной защиты; ходатайство об удовлетворении требования

subscription – подпись, подписание

pleadings – обмен состязательными бумагами, процессуальные действия

pretrial – досудебная процедура (совещание сторон)

judge's charge – заключительное обращение судьи (к присяжным)

allocation of court costs – распределение судебных издержек

jury trial – суд присяжных, судебное разбирательство с участием присяжных заседателей

opening statement – вступительная речь

cross-examination – перекрёстный допрос (свидетеля противной стороны)

rebuttal evidence – контрдоказательство, опровергающее доказательство

closing argument – решающий довод, заключительное слово

adjudication – разрешение дела, вынесение судебного решения; судебное решение или приговор

award of damages – решение суда о возмещении убытков

special damages – реальные убытки, определяемые особыми обстоятельствами дела

general damages – общий ущерб; генеральные убытки

exemplary damages – денежное возмещение в виде наказания ответчика для примера

injunction – судебный запрет

rectification – внесение исправления

specific performance – исполнение договора в натуре, реальное исполнение

rescission – аннулирование, расторжение, прекращение

retrial – новое слушание дела, повторное слушание дела; повторное расследование

ruling – постановление, решение (суда, председателя собрания)

court record – протоколы судебного заседания, материалы судебного заседания

remand the case – возвратить дело в нижестоящий суд

rectify the situation – исправлять положение

5.3. Выполните следующие задания:

1) Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2) Составьте 5 ‘специальных вопросов’ к тексту, используя информацию из Приложения 3 с комментариями о структуре вопросительного предложения в английском языке. Будьте готовы в ходе занятия задать другим студентам свои вопросы по содержанию прочитанного текста.

Civil Law and Criminal Law

1. Civil law is a form of private law and involves the relationships between individual citizens. It is the legal mechanism through which individuals can assert claims against others and have those rights adjudicated and enforced. The purpose of civil law is to settle disputes between individuals and to provide remedies; it is not concerned with punishment as such. The role of the state in relation to civil law is to establish the general framework of legal rules and to provide the legal institutions to operate those rights, but the activation of the civil law is strictly a matter for the individuals concerned.

2. In most legal systems there is a fairly firm distinction between civil law (usually for disputes between individuals or corporations) and criminal law (for actions that are offenses against the entire society). Civil law spells out the duties that exist between persons or between persons and their governments, excluding the duty not to commit crimes. Criminal law, in contrast, has to do with crime. A crime can be defined as a wrong against society proclaimed in a statute and punishable by society through fines and/or imprisonment – or, in some cases, death. As crimes are offenses against society as a whole, they are prosecuted by a public official, not by victims.

3. Terminology. Civil and criminal law each have their own particular terminology. In a criminal case there is a “prosecution”. The person bringing the case is called the “prosecutor”. The “accused” (or the “defendant”) is first charged and then prosecuted. The accused may plead guilty, in which case the defence lawyer may make a plea in mitigation; that is, the lawyer explains special circumstances surrounding the crime which tend to show that the accused is not as blameworthy as it might appear, in the hope that this might persuade the court to be lenient when passing the judgment. The accused may, on the other hand, plead ‘not guilty’, in which case a trial will follow. If the accused is convicted (that is, found guilty) a plea in mitigation may be made. The accused will then be sentenced. If the accused is found ‘not guilty’, he will be acquitted.

4. In a civil case, the “claimant” brings an action against the defendant. Alternatively, you can say that the claimant suesthe defendant. The defendant defends the case by denying liability. If his denial of liability is successful he will be found not liable (for tort, breach of contract or whatever). If his denial is unsuccessful he will be found liable. The court will then make an award to the claimant.

In an appeal case, the “ appellant ” brings the appeal against the “ respondent ”.

5. Case caption information. A case caption contains the name of the state and court, the parties’ names, and a case number. Regarding plaintiffs and prosecutors, you can often tell a civil case from a criminal case by looking at the caption of a case going to trial.

6. In civil litigation a caption first lists the name of the plaintiff (or plaintiffs), which may be an individual, an organization, or a company; e.g. Clearbrook Ironworks Ltd v. Letourneau, Fucella v. Ricker, Swiss Bank Corp v. Air Canada.

7. If the government appears first in the caption of the case, it is likely that the government agency brings a charge against the offender, and the government itself is listed as a party.

8. In England and Wales as with certain Commonwealth countries (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) criminal cases are prosecuted by the Crown, which is always represented by «R» for Rex (king), or Regina (queen), for instance: R v. Clarence.

9. In the USA the caption of the case depends upon the level of a criminal trial:

– in penal actions, brought by the state, the plaintiff is designated either by the word “ People” or by the name of the state where the trial is held, for instance: People v. Joe, People v. Brown or Georgia v. Jane, Arizona v. Miranda;

– in cases, tried by federal courts, the United States is prosecuting on behalf of the people: e.g. U.S. v. Lieberman.

10. It should be remembered that governments may also bring civil actions to collect debts from or settle disputes with individuals, corporations, or other governments. Thus U.S. v. Mayer might be a collection action for unpaid taxes, or Canada v. U.S. might be a boundary dispute in the International Court of Justice. Governments can be sued, as well; people occasionally sue their state or federal government, but they can only get a trial if the government waives its sovereign immunity and allows such suits.

 

Law

 

Civil Law Dispute between private individuals (sometimes the government is a party)
Procedural Rules governing the proceedings in deciding the dispute between the individuals	Substantive Rules concerning the duty owed by one individual to another

 

Violations Civil offenses against society punishable by a fine or civil forfeiture

Tort Duty imposed by law

Contract Duty imposed by agreement

Others Other duties that may be imposed by constitution, statutes, or property rights

 

 

Criminal Law Government action against individual for an act against society
Procedural Rules governing the proceedings in determining guilt of the accused	Substantive Rules concerning conduct that is offensive to society

 

Treason The crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one’s sovereign or nation

Felonies Offenses punishable by death or by imprisonment

Misdemeanors Less serious crimes that could involve imprisonment and/or a fine

 

11. Key differences between civil law and criminal law.

Criminal law is concerned with conduct that is offensive to society as a whole. A criminal case involves a governmental decision to prosecute an individual for an alleged offense. Civil law pertains primarily to the duties of private citizens to each other. In civil cases the disputes are usually between private individuals, although the government may sometimes be a party in a civil suit.

12. In a civil case the court attempts to settle a particular dispute between the parties by determining their legal rights. The court then decides upon an appropriate remedy, such as awarding monetary damages to the injured party or issuing an order that directs one party to perform or refrain from a specific act. In a criminal case the court decides whether the defendant is innocent or guilty. A guilty defendant may be punished by measures expressly prescribed in the country’s penal law.

13. Though the adversarial process is used both in criminal and civil trials, and yet there are some important differences. For instance, in a civil case a litigant must have standing. This concept means simply that the person initiating the suit must have a personal stake in the outcome of the controversy. Otherwise, there is no real controversy between the parties and thus no actual case for the court to decide.

14. In a civil case, the plaintiff usually must prove his or her case by a preponderance of the evidence. Under this standard, the plaintiff must convince the court that, based on the evidence presented by both parties, it is more likely than not that the plaintiff’s allegation is true. A preponderance of the evidence is generally taken to mean that there is sufficient evidence to overcome doubt or speculation. It clearly means that less proof is required in civil cases than in criminal cases.

15. Because the state has extensive resources at its disposal when prosecuting criminal cases, numerous procedural safeguards are in place to protect the rights of defendants. One of these safeguards is the higher burden of proof that applies in a criminal case: the prosecution must prove its case beyond a reasonable doubt. If the jury views the evidence in the case as reasonably permitting either a guilty or a not guilty verdict, then the jury’s verdict must be not guilty. In other words, the government (prosecutor) must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant has committed every essential element of the offense with which she or he is charged. If the jurors are not convinced of the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, they must find the defendant not guilty.

16. Additionally, in a criminal case, the jury’s verdict normally must be unanimous to convict the defendant. In a civil trial by jury,