Тема 1. Понятие экономической теории. Основные категории товарного хозяйства.

Тема 1. Понятие экономической теории. Основные категории товарного хозяйства.

1. Economic theory (экономическая теория) - is a simplification of economic reality designed to capture the important elements of the relation under consideration.

2. Economic model (экономическая модель) - a simplified representation of an economy; a formal statement of a theory; or some part of an economy.

3. Economic system (экономическая система) - a set of mechanisms and institutions for decision making and the implementation of decisions concerning production, income, and consumption within a given geographic area.

4. Macroeconomics (макроэкономика) - studies the behavior of entire economies and the combined effects of individual choices on the overall performance of the economy as reflected by the nation' s price level, total production, and level of employment.

5. Microeconomics (микроэкономика) - examines the behavior of economic actors, the factors that affect individual economic choices, how changes in these factors alter such choices, and their coordination.

6. Factors of production (or resources) (факторы производства (или ресурсы) - inputs to production that are used to create goods and services (labor, entrepreneurship, capital, natural resources).

7. Land (земля) - plots of ground and other natural resources used in the production of goods and services.

8. Labor (труд) - the physical and mental efforts of humans directed toward production.

9. Capital (капитал) - all means of production that are created by people (including buildings, tools, machinery, industrial equipment, and structures) that are used as inputs for production.

10. Entrepreneurial ability (предпринимательская способность) - includes managerial and organization skills of resource owners together with the willingness to take risks.

11. Good (товар) - a tangible product that is used to satisfy wants; that is considered desirable or "good" by those who own it or could acquire it.

12. Free good (свободный товар) - a good that users can have as much as they want at zero price.

13. Economic good (экономический товар) - a good that is scarce - users cannot have as much as they want at zero price.

14. Scarcity (редкость) - a good or a factor of production is scarce if, at zero price, the quantity demanded would exceed the available supply.

15. Service (услуга) - an intangible activity that is used to satisfy a want; intangible products.

16. Consumer goods (потребительские товары) - output consisting of items that consumers purchase, such as clothing, food, and drink.

17. Production possibilities curve (кривая производственных возможностей) - a locus of all combinations of two goods that can be produced with the resources available.

18. Opportunity cost (вмененные издержки) - the cost of the foregone alternatives. The opportunity costof producing one good consists of the other goods that might be produced with the same resources.

19. Comparative advantage (сравнительное преимущество) - the ability to produce a good or service at a relatively lower opportunity cost than someone else.

20. The law of comparative advantage (закон сравнительного преимущества): the individual with the lowest opportunity cost of producing a particular good should specialize in producing that good.

21. Absolute advantage (абсолютное преимущество) - is the ability to produce something with fewer resources than other producers use.

22. Division of labor (разделение труда) - the organization of production of a single good into tasks in which people specialize.

23. Specialization (специализация) - the focusing of individuals' efforts on the production of a particular good or service, or of a single task.

 

Тема 3. Основные понятия макроэкономического анализа

53. Aggregate output (совокупное производство) - is the total quantity of final goods and services produced in the economy during a given time period.

54. Aggregate demand (совокупный спрос) - the total value of goods and services demanded in an economy, measured at some specified price level.

55. The aggregate demand curve (кривая совокупного спроса) - a curve, which shows the total quantity of goods and services that will be demanded (purchased) at different price levels.

56. Aggregate supply (совокупное предложение) - the total value of all goods and services supplied in an economy, measured at some specified price level.

57. The aggregate supply curve (кривая совокупного предложения) - a curve, which shows the total quantity of goods, and services that will be supplied (produced) at different price levels.

58. Aggregate equilibrium (совокупное равновесие) - exists when total demand for output equals the current value of output.

59. Gross national product (GNP) (валовой национальный продукт - ВНП) - the total market value of all final goods and services produced in the economy during a particular time period, usually a year.

60. Final goods (готовые изделия, конечная продукция) - goods, which have been purchased for final use and not for resale or further processing or manufacturing (during the year).

61. Intermediate goods (промежуточные товары) - goods that are purchased for resale or further processing and manufacturing during the year.

62. Double counting (двойной учет) - including the value of intermediate goods in the GNP; counting the same good's value more than once.

63. Value added (добавленная стоимость) - the value of the product sold by a firm less the value of the goods (materials) purchased and used by the firm to produce the product; is equal to the revenue used for wages, rent, interest, and profits.

Методы подсчета ВНП:

64. The expenditure approach to calculating GNP (метод расчета ВНП по расходам) -involves measuring of aggregate expenditure during the year.

65. Aggregate expenditure (совокупные расходы) - is the total spending on final goods and services at a given price level; is equal to the sum of consumption, C; investment, I; government purchases, G; and net exports, (X-M): GNP= C + I +G + (X-M).

66. Consumption (С) (личные потребительские расходы) - includes all household purchases of final goods and services during the year.

67. Investment (I) (валовые частные внутренние инвестиции) -is all output produced during the year but not used for present consumption.

The most important category of investment is physical capital.

68. Physical capital (физический капитал) - includes buildings, machinery, tools, and other manufactured items purchased by firms and used to produce goods and services.

69. Government purchases (G) (государственные закупки товаров и услуг) - include spending for goods and services by all levels of government.

70. Net exports (X - M) (чистый экспорт) - is exports, X, minus imports, M; are the value of domestic products purchased by foreigners minus the value of foreign products purchased by domestic residents.

71.The income approach to calculating GNP (метод расчета ВНП по доходам) -involves adding up the aggregate income arising from the production.

Aggregate expenditure = GNP = Aggregate income

72. Aggregate income (совокупный доход) - is the sum of all the income earned by resource suppliers in the economy.

GNP = Aggregate income = C + Sp + Sb + T (the sum of personal consumption expenditures (C); personal saving (Sp); business saving (Sb); and tax payments (T).

73. Personal consumption expenditures (C) (личные потребительские расходы) - the expenditures of households for durable and nondurable consumer goods and services.

74. Personal saving (Sp) (л ичные сбережения) - personal income after taxes minus consumption expenditure.

75. Personal income (PI) (личный доход) - total income received by households, including government payments.

76. Business saving (Sb) (предпринимательские сбережения) - retained earnings plus depreciation allowances.

77. Retained earning (оставшаяся прибыль) - profit after corporate income taxes minus dividend payments.

78. Depreciation (амортизация) - 1/ allowance for the wearing out of capital goods over a specified period; - 2/ measures the value of capital stock used up (consumed) during a year in producing GNP; - 3/ also termed capital consumption.

Capital consumption (амортизация, амортизационные отчисления) - estimated depreciation of the nation's stock of capital goods in a given time period.

Другие показатели национальных счетов:

79. Net national product (NNP) (чистый национальный продукт) -equals GNP minus depreciation.

NNP = GNP - D.

80. National income (NI) (национальный доход - НД) - total income earned by resource suppliers for their contributions to the production of the GNP; equals NNP plus government subsidies minus indirect business taxes, or simply: NI = NNP - indirect business taxes.

81. Disposable income (DI) (располагаемый доход, доход после уплаты налогов) - is simply personal income after payment of income taxes; equals personal income minus personal taxes and other government charges.

82. Nominal GNP (номинальный ВНП) - national output valued at prices prevailing during the period in question.

83. Real GNP (реальный ВНП) - nominal GNP adjusted for price level changes since some base period, to provide a measure of physical output; or GNP in a year divided by the price index for that year.

Real GNP= Nominal GNP: Price index.

84. Price index (индекс цен) - a measure of the average change in some type of price relative to a base period; a weighted average of prices in the economy at any given time, divided by the prices of the same goods in a base year (as a percentage).

85. Given year (отчетный год) - any year other than the base year for which a price index is constructed.

86. Base year (базовый, базисный год) - the year with which prices in other years are compared when a price index is constructed.

87. Implicit GNP deflator (дефлятор ВНП) - is a price index for the economy's aggregate output; it is the ratio of nominal GNP to real GNP, multiplied by 100.

Implicit price deflator = (nominal GNP: real GNP) x 100.

88. Deflating (дефлирование) - finding the real GNP by decreasing the dollar value of the GNP produced in a year in which prices were higher than in the base year.

89. Inflating (инфлирование) - finding the real GNP by increasing the dollar value of the GNP produced in a year in which prices are lower than they were in the base year.

 

Тема 7. Денежная система

Money (деньги) - anything that is generally accepted in an economy as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of purchasing power, and a standard for deferred payment.

Функции денег:

180. Medium of exchange (средство обмена) - money is a convenient means of exchanging goods and services without engaging in barter; what sellers generally accept and buyers generally use to pay for a good or service.

181. Barter (бартер) - the exchange of one good or service for another good or service.

182. Commodity money (товарные деньги) - money serves as both money and a commodity.

183. Standard of value (мера стоимости) -money is a yardstick for measuring the value of all goods and services.

184. Store of wealth (средство накопления) - money serves as a store of wealth by retaining its purchasing power over time.

Эволюция форм денег: commodity money; metallic money and coinage; token money; paper money.

185. Seigniorage (доход от чеканки монет) - is the revenue earned by a sovereign from coining money; is the difference between the face value of the money and the cost of coining it.

186. Token money (биллонные деньги) -coins which have aface valuegreater than their intrinsic value.

187. Face value ( of the money) (номинальная стоимость денег) - the value stamped on a coin.

188. Intrinsic value (действительная стоимость) - the value of the metal in a coin in the market.

189. Paper money (бумажные деньги) - pieces of paper used as a medium of exchange; in the United States, Federal Reserve notes and treasury currency.

Paper money:

190. Bank notes (банкноты) -were pieces of paper promising to pay a specific amount of money to the bearer in the gold.

191. Fiduciary money (фидуциарные деньги) - is redeemable for gold or another valuable commodity ("as good as gold").

192. Fiat money (фиатные деньги, декретивные деньги - бумажные деньги, не обеспеченные золотом) -(1) anything that is money because government has decreed it to be money; (2) is not redeemable for any commodity; its status as money is conferred by the government.

193. Federal Reserve Note(банкнота Федеральной резервной системы) - paper money issued by and the debts of the Federal Reserve Bank.

194. Legal tender (официальное платежное средство) - is anything that creditors are required by law to accept as payment for debts.

Предложение денег:

195. Monetary aggregates (денежные агрегаты, показатели) - are measures of the economy's money supply.

196. M1 - the narrowly defined money supply; the currency and checkable deposits not owned by the government, Central Banks, or Depository institutions.

197. Currency (наличные деньги) - coins and paper money.

198. Demand deposits (вклад до востребования, бессрочный вклад) - are accounts on which depositors can obtain their deposits at any time.

199. Time deposit (срочный вклад) - an interest-earning deposit in a depository institution which may be withdrawn by the depositor without a loss of interest on or after a specific date or at the end of a specific period of time.

200. Debit card (дебетовая карта) - a plastic card that, when used, immediately reduces the balance in the user’s bank account.

201. Credit card (кредитная карта) -provide a temporary loan to their users by allowing them to purchase items and pay for them later.

202. M2 - a more broadly defined money supply; equal to M1 plus noncheckable savings deposits and small time deposits (deposits of less than $ 100,000).

203. Certificate of deposit (CD) (депозитный сертификат) - a time deposit in a financial institution that is made for a certain period of time at a fixed rate of interest.

204. M3 - a still more broadly defined money supply; a monetary aggregate consisting of M2 plus large time deposits (deposits of $ 100,000 or more).

205. Liquidity (ликвидность) - is the ease with whichan asset can be exchanged for money without a significant loss of value.

206. Asset (актив) - anything with a monetary value owned by a firm or individual.

207. Near money («квазиденьги») - are financial assets that are like money except that they do not serve as a medium of exchange.

208. Monetary multiplier (денежный мультипликатор) - the multiple of itsexcess reserve by which the commercial banking system can expand the money supply and demand deposits by making new loans (or buying securities); and equal to one divided by the required reserve ratio.

 

Тема 4. Встречная торговля

101. Countertrade (встречная торговля) - a type of international trade in which parties exchange goods directly rather than for money; includes transactions, which avoid the use of money or transactions, which use money or credit but impose reciprocal commitments.

102. Transactions, which avoid the use of money (сделки без использования денег) - are simple barter, clearing arrangements, switch trading.

103. Transactions, which use money or credit but impose reciprocal commitments (сделки с использованием денег или кредита, но налагающие взаимные обязательства) - are buyback, counterpurchase, offset.

104. Simple barter (простой бартер) - is a direct exchange of physical goods between two parties; is a one-time transaction carried out under a single contract that specifies both goods to be delivered and the goods to be received.

105. Clearing arrangement (клиринговое соглашение) - each party agrees to purchase a specified (usually equal) value of goods and services from the other, with the cost of transactions debited to a special account.

106. Switch trade (взаимная торговля) - involves transferring use of bilateral clearing balances from one country to another.

107. Buyback transaction (compensation agreement) (компенсационная торговля) - is an agreement by an exporter of a plant or equipment to take compensation in the form of future output from that plant.

108. Production sharing (раздел продукции) - a similar agreement involving natural resources or energy projects.

109. Counterpurchase (встречная торговля) - transaction involving an initial export, bur with the exporter receiving back merchandise that is unrelated to items the exporter manufactures.

110. Offset (возмещающая торговля) - the requirement of importing countries that their purchase price be offset in some way by the seller.

Export credit insurance in the U.S.:

111. Foreign Credit Insurance Association (FCIA) (Ассоциация страхования иностранных кредитов) - is an unincorporated association of private commercial insurance companies operating in cooperation with the government Export-Import Bank; provides policies protecting U.S. exporters against the risk of nonpayment by foreign debtors as a result of commercial and political risk.

112. The FCIA policies (политика FCIA) - short-term policies, involving payment terms up to 180 days, and medium-term policies, with payment terms from 181 days to five years.

113. The Export-Import Bank (Eximbank) (Экспортно-импортный банк) - is an independent agency of the U.S. government, stimulating U.S. exports through various loan guarantee and insurance programs, including repayment of medium-term and long-term export loans.

114. The Private Export Funding Corporation (PEFCO) (Корпорация частного экспортного финансирования) - is a private corporation formed in 1970 to help finance U.S. exports by making dollar loans to foreign purchasers of goods or services manufactured or originated in the U.S.

Тема 1. Понятие экономической теории. Основные категории товарного хозяйства.

1. Economic theory (экономическая теория) - is a simplification of economic reality designed to capture the important elements of the relation under consideration.

2. Economic model (экономическая модель) - a simplified representation of an economy; a formal statement of a theory; or some part of an economy.

3. Economic system (экономическая система) - a set of mechanisms and institutions for decision making and the implementation of decisions concerning production, income, and consumption within a given geographic area.

4. Macroeconomics (макроэкономика) - studies the behavior of entire economies and the combined effects of individual choices on the overall performance of the economy as reflected by the nation' s price level, total production, and level of employment.

5. Microeconomics (микроэкономика) - examines the behavior of economic actors, the factors that affect individual economic choices, how changes in these factors alter such choices, and their coordination.

6. Factors of production (or resources) (факторы производства (или ресурсы) - inputs to production that are used to create goods and services (labor, entrepreneurship, capital, natural resources).

7. Land (земля) - plots of ground and other natural resources used in the production of goods and services.

8. Labor (труд) - the physical and mental efforts of humans directed toward production.

9. Capital (капитал) - all means of production that are created by people (including buildings, tools, machinery, industrial equipment, and structures) that are used as inputs for production.

10. Entrepreneurial ability (предпринимательская способность) - includes managerial and organization skills of resource owners together with the willingness to take risks.

11. Good (товар) - a tangible product that is used to satisfy wants; that is considered desirable or "good" by those who own it or could acquire it.

12. Free good (свободный товар) - a good that users can have as much as they want at zero price.

13. Economic good (экономический товар) - a good that is scarce - users cannot have as much as they want at zero price.

14. Scarcity (редкость) - a good or a factor of production is scarce if, at zero price, the quantity demanded would exceed the available supply.

15. Service (услуга) - an intangible activity that is used to satisfy a want; intangible products.

16. Consumer goods (потребительские товары) - output consisting of items that consumers purchase, such as clothing, food, and drink.

17. Production possibilities curve (кривая производственных возможностей) - a locus of all combinations of two goods that can be produced with the resources available.

18. Opportunity cost (вмененные издержки) - the cost of the foregone alternatives. The opportunity costof producing one good consists of the other goods that might be produced with the same resources.

19. Comparative advantage (сравнительное преимущество) - the ability to produce a good or service at a relatively lower opportunity cost than someone else.

20. The law of comparative advantage (закон сравнительного преимущества): the individual with the lowest opportunity cost of producing a particular good should specialize in producing that good.

21. Absolute advantage (абсолютное преимущество) - is the ability to produce something with fewer resources than other producers use.

22. Division of labor (разделение труда) - the organization of production of a single good into tasks in which people specialize.

23. Specialization (специализация) - the focusing of individuals' efforts on the production of a particular good or service, or of a single task.