In the case of essays written in exams, it is best to begin planning by analysing the title and then writing down any ideas that seem relevant.

Planning a Text

Outline planning was examined in Unit 2. Planning gives essays a coherent structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an exam, planning is more hurried, but also more critical. This unit looks at planning first in exams and then for coursework.

In the case of essays written in exams, it is best to begin planning by analysing the title and then writing down any ideas that seem relevant.

This process is called brainstorming, and at first ideas are collected in any order.

Read the title below and add more ideas to the list.

Tourism is the world’s most important industry. Why is this, and will it continue to be so?

development of jet aircraft

mass tourism began in the 1960s

increased leisure time in rich countries

problems of overcrowding, pollution

.............

.............

.............

.............

Having assembled your ideas, it is then necessary to find a suitable framework for the essay.

A structure may be suggested by the title of the essay. There are a number of common structures used in essay writing.

Which would be most suitable for the title above?

a) Time – usually from the past to the present or the future, as in a story.

b) Comparison – two or more topics are examined and compared, one after another.

c) For and against – the advantages and disadvantages of two systems are discussed.

3. Complete the plan for the title in (1) using ideas from (1).

a) Introduction: historical background/current problems, e.g. overcrowding

b) Main body:

i) mass tourism began in 1960s with development of jet aircraft

ii)

iii)

iv)

c) Conclusion:

4. Decide which of the three frameworks in (2) would be most suitable for the following titles.

a) Prisons make criminals worse, and should be abolished – Discuss.

b) In the UK, radio is gaining audience while TV is losing viewers. Consider possible reasons.

c) Trace the development of mass production and evaluate its main benefits.

d) ‘Examinations can never be fair.’ To what extent is this true?

e) The internet will make books redundant in twenty years – Discuss.

5. Study the title below and the ideas collected for the essay. Add to the list if possible. Then choose a suitable framework and complete the plan below.

Compare the effects of advertising on TV with advertising in newspapers. What are the main differences? Are there any similarities?

TV adverts more lively, dynamic

newspaper adverts can be targeted at a special market, e.g. local

TV advertising very expensive (to make and show)

many people video TV and fast-forward adverts

newspaper adverts can be prepared more quickly

TV adverts can reach a wider audience

..............

a) Introduction: role of newspapers and TV in society today

b) Main body:

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

c) Conclusion:

6. Choose one of the titles below and note at least six ideas that might be used in the essay. Then select a suitable framework and write a plan.

a) In twenty years’ time most learning will be online. The internet will replace the classroom.

b) Describe the education system in your country and suggest how it could be improved.

7. In the case of longer essays, written as coursework, planning will normally be a two-stage process:

a) before reading: using the title to develop an outline structure

b) after reading: modifying the outline and adding detail

Study the plan below. Suggest how it could be modified/improved.

Title: Analyse the role of the private sector in the modern English education system.

a) 550,000 children at private schools in England & Wales

b) Negative effects on state system – better pupils removed

c) 7% of all pupils in England & Wales attend private schools

d) Reasons for using private sector, e.g. smaller classes, better results in exams

e) 20% of university intake from private schools

f) Positive effects on state system – fewer pupils to teach/provides competition

Organising Paragraphs

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of texts. Well-organised paragraphs not only help readers understand the argument; they also help writers to structure their ideas effectively.

1. Read the following paragraph.

The way we use banks is currently changing. This is partly because of the introduction of new technology in the last ten years. The personal computer and the internet, for instance, allow customers to view their accounts at home and perform operations such as moving money between accounts. At the same time banks are being reorganised in ways that affect both customers and staff. In the past five years over 3,000 bank branches have closed in Britain. The banks have discovered that staffing call centres is cheaper than running a branch network.

The structure of the paragraph is:

1. topic sentence The way we use banks …

2. reason This is partly because …

3. example The personal computer …

4. details At the same time banks …

5. further details In the past five …

6. reason The banks have discovered …

A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one subject.

All paragraphs contain a topic sentence, which is often, but not always, the first. Other components vary according to the nature of the topic. Introductory paragraphs often contain definitions, and descriptive paragraphs include a lot of detail. Other sentences give examples and offer reasons and restatements.

3. Read and analyse the following paragraph.

In recent years all British universities have adopted the semester system. A semester is a period of time which lasts for half the academic year. Semester 1, for example, starts in September and finishes in January. Previously the academic year had been divided into three terms: autumn, winter and spring. Most courses consist of modules that last for one semester, and exams are held at the end of each. Britain began using semesters to make it easier for international students to move from one country to another.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

4. The sentences below make up a paragraph, but have been mixed up. Use the table to re-write the sentences in the correct order.

a) For many centuries it has been the centre of the country’s economic, cultural and social life.

b) 500 years ago it had become a major river port for ships trading with Europe.

c) Its dominance is due to its strategic site near the lowest crossing point of the River Thames.

d) London has been the English capital for over 1000 years.

Topic

Restatement

Reason

Detail

5. The sentences below form a paragraph, but they have been mixed up. Rewrite them in the box overleaf in the correct order and analyse the paragraph structure.

a) This was because of problems with the roof design.

b) Mark Roberts will watch a display of jazz dance and disco.

c) The opening has been delayed by almost three months.

d) The new Leisure Centre will be opened on May 15th by the Sports Minister.

e) The architects are currently being sued for Ј2 m. by the local council.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. You are writing an essay on ‘Prisons make criminals worse, and should be abolished’. Using the notes below, complete the introductory paragraph, following the structure provided.

Introduction

Modern prison system developed in 19th century

Prisons intended to isolate, punish and reform

Steep rise in number of prisoners in last 20 years

Critics claim they are ‘university of crime’

Essay aims to consider how effective prisons are

1. detail The modern prison system

2. reason The system had three basic aims:

3. detail In the last 20 years

4. detail Prisons are commonly criticised

5. topic This essay attempts to evaluate

34 Part 1: The Writing Process

7. Using the second set of notes, write the next paragraph of the essay.

Advantages

prisons offer society three apparent benefits

provide punishment by deprivation of freedom

offenders are segregated so cannot re-offend

possibility of reform through training programmes

Topic

Detail

Detail

Detail

8. Using the next set of notes, write the third paragraph.

Drawbacks

Prisons appear to be failing in 21st century

Prison population steadily rising in many countries

Many prisoners are ‘repeat offenders’

Few prisons able to offer effective reform programmes

Prison conditions often brutal and degrading

Topic

2.

3.

4.

5.

Organising the Main Body

This and the next two units deal with the organisation of the main body, the introduction and the conclusion. In the case of longer assignments it is often better to write the main body before the introduction. With shorter essays, for example in exams, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written first.

J1 K1 L1

J2 K2 L2

Introductions

An introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what it tells the reader about the writer’s style and approach. Unless you can introduce the subject clearly the reader may not wish to continue.

1. What is the purpose of the introduction to an essay? Choose from the items below:

a) to define some of the terms in the title

b) to give your opinion of the subject

c) to show that you have read some research on the subject

d) to show that the subject is worth writing about

e) to explain which areas of the subject you will deal with

f) to get the reader’s attention with a provocative idea

g) to show how you intend to organise your essay

Conclusions

There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the conclusion. If the title is asking a question, the conclusion should contain the answer. The reader may look at the conclusion first to get a quick idea of the main arguments or points.

Re-reading and Re-writing

When you have finished the conclusion it may be tempting to hand in your work immediately. However, it is almost certain that it can be improved by being revised. With longer assignments, it may be worth asking a classmate to give an opinion.

Proof-Reading

The vital final part of the writing process, proof-reading can prevent confusion and misunderstanding of your work. Although most word-processing programmes check your spelling, they will not detect other common types of mistakes.

Planning a Text

Outline planning was examined in Unit 2. Planning gives essays a coherent structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an exam, planning is more hurried, but also more critical. This unit looks at planning first in exams and then for coursework.

In the case of essays written in exams, it is best to begin planning by analysing the title and then writing down any ideas that seem relevant.

This process is called brainstorming, and at first ideas are collected in any order.