Do you agree with this statement?

A totally … society, in which sexual … between men and women is the norm, is still a long way off. This is certainly the case if you watch television, where men are often portrayed as the …, bringing money home to the wife, who is usually depicted as the …, prone to extreme emotions and temper tantrums. But is this really the case? Is it still fair to create … such as this?

After all, as more women go out to work and more men stay at home to look after the house and the kids, it is quite clear that so-called … are merging and disappearing.

Take the office workplace as an example. For years, businesses and companies were … – the directors, managers and businessmen were always men, the secretaries and personal assistants always female. This was probably because men have traditionally been seen as more …, more able to deal with the cut-and-thrust of business.

But now women are proving that they can be equally tough, while simultaneously being more … and caring. In fact, in many ways, women are more … than men, a vital aspect of modern business where you are expected to do more than just one job. And thanks to the …, women are paid the same as men. It would appear that, in many cases, the … is a dying breed.

At home, too, there is less evidence of …. It is no longer the woman who does all the cooking and cleaning and …. Such … is now often shared equally. … no longer requires the woman to stay indoors all day while the man stays out until all hours. Whether this is due to the struggle by the … in the 1960s and 1970s, or whether it is due to a natural shift in attitudes is unclear.

What is clear, however, is that women no longer feel they need to be regarded as …, the underdogs in a... with their …. In fact, many believe that in the (…, it is women who have come out on top.

 

MINI-TEXTS FOR TRANSLATION

 

1. Participants of University of the Third Age are exhibiting drawings and photographs

Exhibition of drawings and photos called „Art course 2008“ will take place in the Atrium of the Faculty of Social Studies.

Exhibited works have been created in thematic course called Art course in July this year. This course took place traditionally in Telč where the seniors took up successfully last year´s event and worked at drawings and taking photos there.

Special lecturers Vítězslav Švalbach and Jiří Eliška acquainted them not only with basics of drawing and linear perspective and also with other topics for example with portraits or technique of collage. Lecteur of photographic course Jiří Víšek put emphasis on refined arrangement, working with light and reaching technically high-quality photographs.

Ceremonial meeting on the occasion of vernissage will be hold in 22nd of October at 4 p.m. at the Faculty of Social Studies, Joštova 10, Brno.

 

2. The University of the Third Age first came to Britain, in 1981, with a meeting of social scientists convened by Peter Laslett of Trinity College, Cambridge. Two important factors made the "British model" different from its French counterparts. First, no support was given by British universities, as they already had their own programmes of Continuing Education open to the public. Secondly, the Open University was already established, offering excellent university level courses to all. There was no point in duplicating either of these areas.

Instead, a public meeting in Cambridge, in 1982, showed that Third Agers were capable of organising their own activities, using their own expertise. Based on this challenging concept, the first U3As were set up by enthusiastic volunteers in six different towns.

Linking these pioneering groups was the Third Age Trust, which provided a national focus. It was registered as a Limited Guarantee Company and as a Registered Charity in 1983. It now links 257 local U3As in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and,has over 40,000 individual members.

 

3. WASHINGTON – From cell phones and texting to religion and manners, younger and older Americans see the world differently, creating the largest generation gap since the tumultuous years of the 1960s and the culture clashes over Vietnam, civil rights and women's liberation.

A new study released Monday by the Pew Research Center found Americans of different ages increasingly at odds over a range of social and technological issues. It also highlights a widening age divide after last November's election, when 18- to 29-year-olds voted for Democrat Barack Obama by a 2-to-1 ratio.

 

4. Getting old isn't as bad as people believe in terms of health, but isn't as good when it comes to lifestyle. While more than half of those under 65 think they will experience memory loss when they are older, only one-quarter of people 65 and older say they do so. Older people reported fewer instances than expected of problems such as serious illness, not being able to drive, being less sexually active or depressed.

On the other hand, older adults end up having less leisure time than expected. While 87 percent of those under 65 think they will have more time for hobbies and other interests in older age, only 65 percent of older people report having it. Life at 65 and older also fell below expectations when it came to time with family, travel, having more financial security and less stress.

 

5. Younger people are more likely to embrace technology. About 75 percent of adults 18 to 30 went online daily, compared with 40 percent of those 65 to 74 and about 16 percent for people 75 and older. The age gap widened over cell phones and text messaging. About 6 percent of those 65 and older used a cell phone for most or all of their calls; 11 percent sent or received text messages. That's compared with 64 percent of adults under 30 for cell phone use and 87 percent for texting.

Americans differ on when old age begins. On average, they say 68. People under age 30 believe it begins at 60, while those 65 and older push the threshold to 74. Of all those surveyed, most said they wanted to live to 89.

 

1. Челябинск, Сентябрь 22 (Новый Регион, Юлия Шевелина) – В Челябинске семейный скандал закончился взрывом.

Как сообщили корреспонденту «Нового Региона» в управлении внутренних дел, в Ленинское РУВД поступило сообщение о семейной ссоре, разгоревшейся в доме по Копейскому шоссе. По указанному адресу выехал участковый. Дверь ему открыла молодая женщина, которая сообщила, что в комнате находится ее отец, вооруженный охотничьим ружьем 12 калибра. Таким образом челябинец решил убедить свою дочь, что ее проживание на родительской территории затянулось. Участковый ворвался в комнату и обезоружил отца семейства. Разряжая конфискованное охотничье ружье, офицер услышал за спиной шипение и треск. Как выяснилось, хозяин дома поджег взрывпакет. В течение нескольких секунд участковый принял решение, выхватил зажженный взрывпакет, зажал его в руке и прижал к телу.

В данное время милиционер госпитализирован в ГБ №3. В отношении воинственного челябинца возбуждено уголовное дело по статье 222 «Незаконное хранение взрывчатых веществ» и 318 «Применение насилия в отношении представителя власти».

 

2. Для многих не понятно значение словосочетания университет «Третьего возраста». И не удивительно! Университет, где обучают пенсионеров, а именно они относятся к категории «третий возраст», появился в Москве относительно недавно, всего три года назад. Открылось такое учебное заведение в Юго-Восточном округе, в Комплексном центре социального обслуживания «Южнопортовый». Первоначально студентов-пенсионеров обучали на четырех основных факультетах: изобразительного искусства, информационных технологи, медицинских и правовых знаний. Каждый желающий мог прийти на занятия и получить знания, которые непременно пригодятся ему в быту. Так, например, на медицинском факультете пожилые люди могли научиться справляться со своими недугами: сахарным диабетом, повышенным или пониженным артериальным давлением, расстройствами памяти. А на юридическом факультете можно научиться «качать права», «чтобы не делали из нас людей, которым можно навешать на уши лапши», - говорят пенсионеры. А совсем скоро, как сообщили в центре социального обслуживания «Южнопортовый», в университете можно будет научиться выращивать айву, прививать яблоньки, сажать морковь, разводить пчел, делать мед, а также разговаривать по-английски. Все это на факультетах пчеловодства, садоводства и иностранных языков. Такие университеты помогают пожилому населению не только приобретать знания, которые обязательно пригодятся в быту, но и находить новый круг общения по интересам, а также постоянно развиваться и не сидеть на месте. Ведь человек стареет только тогда, когда перестает развиваться.

 

3. Открытие университета третьего возраста состоится на базе воронежской библиотеки № 24 29 сентября. Как сообщили корреспонденту ИА «Воронеж-Медиа» участники проекта, в структуру этой организации войдут кружки, клубы, лектории, которые предоставят культурно-образовательные услуги для представителей старшего поколения. Университет третьего возраста создается для активной части пенсионеров, которые либо сами хотят продолжить образование, либо желают делиться своими знаниями с молодым поколением. Эта структура также поможет пенсионерам получить дополнительное образование, которое позволит оставаться активными членами общества. Предполагается, что обучение будет осуществляться на базе предыдущих специальностей, а по окончании прошедшие определенный курс получат сертификат, дающий право на ведение того или иного вида деятельности. Это также позволит представителям старшего поколения найти свое место в изменившихся реалиях. В создании такого нового образовательного учреждения использовался опыт прибалтийских государств, а также ряда регионов России (Псковской, Новосибирской областей), где уже внедрена подобная практика. По материалам ИА «Воронеж-Медиа»

 

4. Специалисты отмечают улучшение демографической ситуации в России в последние три года, а также констатируют сокращение смертности в результате ДТП.

Общая смертность при всех патологиях снизилась за последние три года на две единицы и составляет сейчас 14,7, а рождаемость увеличилась на 15%, заявила замглавы Минздравсоцразвития Вероника Скворцова в интервью телеканалу «Вести», передает «Интерфакс». Таким образом, за три года убыль населения Российской Федерации уменьшилась более чем в два раза.

Продолжительность жизни за этот же период увеличилась на 2,5 года. За три года снизилась младенческая смертность почти на 23 процента.

 

5. Росстат опубликовал прогнозные данные об ожидаемой продолжительности жизни. Согласно среднему варианту прогноза, в 2009 году средняя продолжительность жизни мужчин и женщин будет составлять 67,2 лет, отдельно мужчин - 60,4 года, женщин - 74,4 года. В 2010 году средняя продолжительность жизни увеличится до 67,6 лет, мужчин - до 60,9 лет, женщин - до 74,7 лет. В 2011 году средняя продолжительность жизни увеличится до 68,1 года, мужчин – до 61,4 года, женщин – до 75,1 года.

В 2008 году средняя продолжительность жизни населения Архангельской области составила 66,3 года. Средняя продолжительность жизни женщин в регионе составляет 73,2 года, мужчин – 59 лет.

 

SPEAK OUT

 

Prepare and present a 10-minute talk on one of the following issues:

1. What are some causes of misunderstanding across generations?

2. What are some of the problems of the elderly in this country?

3. What can society do to solve the problem of the aged?

4. Would you like to work in a home for the elderly? Why or why not?

5. How I understand “family ecology”.

6.Third-age universities.

 

 

UNIT 6

ETHNICITY AND RACE. FIGHTING TERRORISM.

DISCUSSION

– How would you define the following notions: "nationality," "ethnicity," "race," "ethnic group," "ethnic minority'?

– What can you say about "national character"? How, if it's possible, would you define the "character" of your own nationality and some other nationalities? What factors (social, historical, geographical, etc) influence "national character"?

– Have you ever been witness to racial or ethnic insensitivity or abuse? How did you react? Why?

– What is your attitude towards ethnic humor? Why do you think ethnic humor can be so funny to some people and so offensive to others?

– Every ethnic group has its cultural heritage fixed in music, literature and folklore. Can you speak the language of an ethnic minority? Do you know anything about other nationalities' arts?

– What do you think about inter-ethnic relations in your country? What causes frictions and misunderstandings?

– What do you think about recent developments of ethnic and racial unrest around the world?

– Why do people emigrate?

 

VOCABULARY

Agroterrorism	Biochemterrorism
Bioterrorism	Information Warfare
To suspect smb of involvement in the bombings	Rescue work; rescue worker; to hamper rescue work
Chemterrorism	To carry out a terrorist act
e-bomb	To suffer losses
A bomb with the equivalent of mere than 440 pounds of explosives	The toll was high – 10 killed and 50 wounded
Weapons of mass destruction	To place the explosive charge in (a truck)
Consumer terrorism	To plant explosives in
To claim responsibility for (the bomb blast which killed 20 people)	A bandit community engaged in terrorism, slave trade, robbery
To renounce terrorism	To declare a national state of emergency
A bulletproof vest	To call for retribution against
Riot police	Tight security measures
Checkpoints on all roads leading into and out of the city	To attain political, ideological and religious aims
To check identity papers and cargo	An explosive device went off
To search apartment building basements and storerooms for explosives	To build a broad-based anti-terrorism coalition
A cache	TNT
Fuse	Internal terrorism; to support terrorism
Explosives; to destroy explosives	Terror groups
Demolition experts	To injure smb
To apply tough economic sanctions against	To be damaged/destroyed by a powerful blast
The death toll from the explosion has reached 118	To fight terrorism effectively; to combat terrorism
The Emergency Situations Ministry	To designate (a certain day) as a national day of mourning for victims of the blast
To detain smb in connection with the blast	To deliberate targeting of civilians; to deliberately attack civilians
Punitive action against	A crime against humanity
To wage an effective war against terrorism	To mastermind the (11 September) terror attack on (New York)
To disrupt terrorist networks	A rebel, a guerilla, a(n Islamic) militant
To fight a war on terrorism	To be involved in the attack on (the US)
To hold hostages To release hostages International fugitives To unleash a war High-tech weaponry Ceasefire terms	Hot zones Deadly explosive Political killings Horrific crime To police the border Mediators

be victimized by fit stereotypes macho exhibit preference for cut support to the poor distort the nature of the problem try against incredible odds the poverty line poverty area ghetto teen pregnancy segregation of blacks obliterate a barrier black middle class

be impaired by shoulder responsibility for popular negative stereotypes deprived depraved genocidal policies rub shoulders with racial component black neighborhood live below block a promotion bar entry into genocide ideology shrinking minority

 

READING 1

Types of Terrorism

Are there different types of terrorism?

Yes. Experts have identified at least six different sorts of terrorism: nationalist, religious, state-sponsored, left-wing, right-wing, and anarchist.

What is nationalist terrorism?

Nationalist terrorists seek to form a separate state for their own national group, often by drawing attention to a fight for "national liberation" that they think the world has ignored. This sort of terrorism has been among the most successful at winning international sympathy and concessions. Experts say that nationalist terror groups have tended to calibrate their use of violence, using enough to rivet world attention but not so much that they alienate supporters abroad or members of their base community. Nationalist terrorism can be difficult to define, since many groups accused of the practice insist that they are not terrorists but freedom fighters.

What are some examples of nationalist terrorist groups?

Religious terrorist groups include Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda network, the Palestinian Sunni Muslim organization Hamas, the Lebanese Shiite group Hezbollah, the radical Jewish groups affiliated with the late Rabbi Meir Kahane, some American white-supremacist militias, and the Aum Shinrikyo cult in Japan.

What is religious terrorism?

Religious terrorists seek to use violence to further what they see as divinely commanded purposes, often targeting broad categories of foes in an attempt to bring about sweeping changes. Religious terrorists come from many major faiths, as well as from small cults. This type of terrorism is growing swiftly, notes Bruce Hoffman of the RAND think tank; in 1995 (the most recent year for which such statistics were available), nearly half of the 56 known, active international terrorist groups were religiously motivated. Because religious terrorists are concerned not with rallying a constituency of fellow nationalists or ideologues but with pursuing their own vision of the divine will, they lack one of the major constraints that historically has limited the scope of terror attacks, experts say. As Hoffman puts it, religious terrorists can sanction "almost limitless violence against a virtually open-ended category of targets: that is, anyone who is not a member of the terrorists' religion or religious sect."

What are some examples of religious terrorist groups?

Religious terrorist groups include Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda network, the Palestinian Sunni Muslim organization Hamas, the Lebanese Shiite group Hezbollah, the radical Jewish groups affiliated with the late Rabbi Meir Kahane, the Israeli extremists Baruch Goldstein (who machine-gunned Muslim worshipers in a Hebron mosque in 1994) and Yigal Amir (who assassinated then Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in 1995), some American white-supremacist militias, and the Aum Shinrikyo cult in Japan.

What is state-sponsored terrorism?

State-sponsored terrorist groups are deliberately used by radical states as foreign policy tools—as Hoffman puts it, as "a cost-effective way of waging war covertly, through the use of surrogate warriors or 'guns for hire.'" One important early case was the Iranian government's use of supposedly independent young militants to seize hostages at the American embassy in Tehran in 1979. With enhanced resources at their disposal, state-sponsored terrorist groups are often capable of carrying out more deadly attacks than other terrorists, including airplane bombings.

Terrorism: An Introduction

Is terrorism just brutal, unthinking violence?

No. Experts agree that there is almost always a strategy behind terrorist actions. Whether it takes the form of bombings, shootings, hijackings, or assassinations, terrorism is neither random, spontaneous, nor blind; it is a deliberate use of violence against civilians for political or religious ends.

Is there a definition of terrorism?

Even though most people can recognize terrorism when they see it, experts have had difficulty coming up with an ironclad definition. The State Department defines terrorism as "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience." In another useful attempt to produce a definition, Paul Pillar, a former deputy chief of the CIA's Counterterrorist Center, argues that there are four key elements of terrorism:

A. It is premeditated—planned in advance, rather than an impulsive act of rage.

B. It is political—not criminal, like the violence that groups such as the mafia use to get money, but designed to change the existing political order.

C. It is aimed at civilians—not at military targets or combat-ready troops.

D. It is carried out by subnational groups—not by the army of a country.

Where does the word "terrorism" come from?

It was coined during France's Reign of Terror in 1793-94. Originally, the leaders of this systematized attempt to weed out "traitors" among the revolutionary ranks praised terror as the best way to defend liberty, but as the French Revolution soured, the word soon took on grim echoes of state violence and guillotines. Today, most terrorists dislike the label, according to Bruce Hoffman of the RAND think tank.

Is terrorism a new phenomenon?

No. The oldest terrorists were holy warriors who killed civilians. For instance, in first-century Palestine, Jewish Zealots would publicly slit the throats of Romans and their collaborators; in seventh-century India, the Thuggee cult would ritually strangle passersby as sacrifices to the Hindu deity Kali; and in the eleventh-century Middle East, the Shiite sect known as the Assassins would eat hashish before murdering civilian foes. Historians can trace recognizably modern forms of terrorism back to such late-nineteenth-century organizations as Narodnaya Volya (“People’s Will”), an anti-tsarist group in Russia. One particularly successful early case of terrorism was the 1914 assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serb extremist, an event that helped trigger World War I. Even more familiar forms of terrorism—often custom-made for TV cameras—first appeared on July 22, 1968, when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine undertook the first terrorist hijacking of a commercial airplane.

Is terrorism aimed at an audience?

Usually, yes. Terrorist acts are often deliberately spectacular, designed to rattle and influence a wide audience, beyond the victims of the violence itself. The point is to use the psychological impact of violence or of the threat of violence to effect political change. As the terrorism expert Brian Jenkins bluntly put it in 1974, "Terrorism is theatre."

“Dirty Bombs”

What is a “dirty bomb”?

A “dirty bomb,” also known as a radiological weapon, is a conventional explosive such as dynamite packaged with radioactive material that scatters when the bomb goes off. A dirty bomb kills or injures through the initial blast of the conventional explosive and by airborne radiation and contamination—hence the term “dirty.” Such bombs could be miniature devices or as big as a truck bomb.

How much expertise does it take to make a dirty bomb?

Not much more than it takes to make a conventional bomb. No special assembly is required; the regular explosive would simply disperse the radioactive material packed into the bomb. The hard part is acquiring the radioactive material, not building the bomb. The Washington Post reported in March 2002 that the Bush administration's consensus view was that Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda terrorist network probably had such often-stolen radioactive contaminants as strontium 90 and cesium 137, which could be used to make a dirty bomb.

Indeed, the relative ease of constructing such weapons makes them a particularly worrisome threat, counterterrorist experts say. Even so, expertise matters. Not all dirty bombs are equally dangerous: the cruder the weapon, the less damage caused. We don't know if terrorists could handle and detonate high-grade radioactive material without fatally injuring themselves first.

Is a dirty bomb a nuclear weapon?

No. Nuclear weapons involve a complex nuclear-fission reaction and are thousands of times more devastating.

Is a dirty bomb a weapon of mass destruction?

Yes, but perhaps more in its capacity to cause terror and disruption than its ability to inflict heavy casualties, experts say. Depending on the sophistication of the bomb, wind conditions, and the speed with which the area of the attack was evacuated, the number of deaths and injuries from a dirty bomb explosion might not be substantially greater than from a conventional bomb explosion. But panic over radioactivity and evacuation measures could snarl a city. Moreover, the area struck would be off-limits for at least several months during cleanup efforts, which could paralyze a local economy and reinforce public fears about being near a radioactive area.

Has a dirty bomb ever been used?

No. In May 2002, the United States arrested an alleged al-Qaeda terrorist for plotting to build and use a dirty bomb. Also, according to a U.N. report, Iraq tested a one-ton radiological bomb in 1987 but gave up on the idea because the radiation levels it generated were not deadly enough.

Which radioactive materials could be used to make a dirty bomb?
Many types of radioactive materials with military, industrial, or medical applications could be used in a dirty bomb. Weapons-grade plutonium or uranium, as well as freshly spent nuclear fuel, would be the most deadly but are also the hardest to obtain and handle. Medical supplies such as radium or certain cesium isotopes, used in cancer treatments and X-ray machines, could be used, although they generally would be less dangerous. As little as a measuring cup's worth of radioactive material would be needed, but experts say that such small amounts would be unlikely to cause severe harm, especially if scattered over a wide area.

Are such radioactive substances well-guarded?

Not always. The IAEA notes that virtually every country has radioactive substances that could be used to make dirty bombs and warns that some countries do not guard these materials adequately. Experts are particularly concerned about the security of nuclear facilities in Pakistan, India, and other developing countries. But the problem is not limited to the developing world; reports have also cited weak protection of spent fuel at U.S. nuclear facilities. In the spring of 2002, the United States and Russia agreed to form a joint task force to better guard nuclear materials, and the Bush administration earmarked $20 million to safeguard substances in the former Soviet Union that could be placed in dirty bombs.

 

READING 2

Terror as a Strategy of Psychological Warfare Boaz Ganor ICT Executive Director

The modern terrorist differs from the common criminal in that he is motivated by a political agenda. The actions of the terrorist—murder, sabotage, blackmail—may be identical to those of the common criminal. However, for the terrorist, these are all means to achieve wider goals, whether ideological, religious, social or economic. The way to the terrorist’s ultimate political goal runs through a vital interim objective—the creation of an unremitting paralyzing sensation of fear in the target community. Thus, modern terrorism is a means of instilling in every individual the feeling that the next terror attack may have his name on it. Terrorism works to undermine the sense of security and to disrupt everyday life so as to harm the target country’s ability to function. The goal of this strategy is, in turn, to drive public opinion to pressure decision-makers to surrender to the terrorists’ demands. Thus the target population becomes a tool in the hands of the terrorist in advancing the political agenda in the name of which the terrorism is perpetrated. Terrorists are not necessarily interested in the deaths of three, or thirty—or even of three thousand—people. Rather, they allow the imagination of the target population to do their work for them. In fact, it is conceivable that the terrorists could attain their aims without carrying out a single attack; the desired panic could be produced by the continuous broadcast of threats and declarations—by radio and TV interviews, videos and all the familiar methods of psychological warfare. Modern terrorism, in defiance of the norms and laws of combat, focuses its attacks on civilians, thus turning the home front into the frontline. The civilian population is not only an easy target for the terrorist, but also an effective one; the randomness of the attack contributes to the general anxiety. The message is: anyone, anywhere, at any time, may be the target of the next attack. This threat undermines the ability of the civilian population to live a normal life. When every action must involve planning for how to survive a potential terror attack at a random time and place, the daily routine becomes fraught with anxiety. A “conventional” terror attack usually has a fairly limited physical effect. Its effectiveness lies in its ability to get the terrorists’ message across. These messages are intended for three different audiences. To the terrorist organization’s supporters, and the population which it purports to serve, the message is: “We have succeeded. We have neutralized the power of the enemy and hit them at their most sensitive point.” The attack thus serves to strengthen this public’s support of the terror organization, to encourage enlistment to their ranks and, in general, to raise the morale of this community. To the community targeted by the terror attack, the opposite message is sent: Despite all your defenses—your army, your policy force, your military hardware—you are never safe from us. Once civilians feel unsafe in their own homes and workplaces, daily life is disrupted, causing considerable harm to personal and national morale. The message is: until you accede to our demands, you will not be safe. At the same time, the terror attacks sends still a third message to international public opinion. To the rest of the world, the terrorists present the attack as an example of their determination to achieve their political aims by any means and at any cost. The terror attack is intended to draw the attention of international public opinion to the conflict and the terrorists’ demands. A more sinister message is concealed in this show of determination: “You, the countries uninvolved in the conflict, must put pressure on our enemies to give us what we want. Otherwise you might be next.”

Classifying fear

The terrorists’ primary aim is to create fear within the target population, with the intention that this fear is translated into pressure on the government to accede to the terrorists’ demands in order to stave off further terror attacks. The success of this strategy is dependent on the degree to which the fear of attack can be magnified out of all proportion to the actual danger. The fear engendered in a population living in the shadow of terrorism has two components—a rational component and an irrational component. The rational fear is simply a product of the possibility of meeting a violent death as a result of a terror attack, with the degree of anxiety being proportional to the actual likelihood of the event occurring. In a society experiencing a large number of attacks, such anxiety is natural. However, there is also a more insidious element—an “irrational” anxiety—a fear that bears no relation to the actual statistical probability of ones being killed or injured in a terror attack, or even of a terror attack taking place at all.

It is this irrational anxiety that is the interim goal of the terrorist organization, and the means by which it exerts pressure on the target population. By magnifying the threat—making it seem that violent death lies around every corner—the terrorists hope to amplify the victim’s anxiety to the point where he looses a sense of proportion. Terrorism is psychological warfare pure and simple. It aims to isolate the individual from the group, to break up a society into so many frightened individuals, hiding in their homes and unable to go about their daily lives as citizens, employees, and family members. Further the terrorist aims to undermine the individual’s belief in the collective values of his society, by amplifying the potential threat to the extent that security appears to outweigh all other political concerns. Terrorism uses the victim’s own imagination against him.

Terrorist use of psychological manipulation

Modern terror organizations invest much time and effort, as well as extensive resources into methods of psychological warfare. They carefully observer their target population to find weaknesses and cracks in the society which can be widened or exploited. The terrorists study the target country’s media to learn how best to get their threats across and how to magnify the fears of the population and stimulate or amplify criticism of the government and its policies. Dissenting views in the society are carefully collected and used to undermine the population’s beliefs in the rightness of its own ways. The terror organization knows from the outset that it will not achieve its goals purely by means of terror attacks. It must enlist the help of its victims themselves in gaining its objectives. A victory that would be impossible by military means is thus brought within reach through a protracted, gnawing campaign of psychological warfare—a war of attrition that gradually erodes the target population’s will to fight and turns the tables against the stronger power.

Personalizing the attack

One of the most telling examples of such a policy in action is the effect that a terror attack has on members of the target population not directly hit by the attack. This influence— the “personalization of the attack”—can be seen immediately after a terror attack on a busy street or crowded shopping center. The immediate reaction of most people upon hearing of the attack is: “I was there only last week!” or “my wife works on the next block,” or “my aunt lives just down the street.” People have a natural tendency to seek a personal connection to events—a tendency of which the terrorist organization is well aware. By such “personalizing” of terror attacks, the effect on the target population is made to extend beyond the immediate victims to include people who weren’t even in the area at the time of the attack. The message conveyed—even though totally unfounded—is nevertheless highly dangerous. Members of the target population come to believe that only by a coincidence were they or someone dear to them, saved from harm, and that such a coincidence cannot be counted upon next time. Of course, statistically these fears have no connection to reality. The likelihood of being harmed in a terror attack is fless than the likelihood of being harmed in a traffic accident or even an accident in the home or workplace. In fact, the chances of dying of serious illness are much greater than the chances of being even lightly injured in a terror attack. Nonetheless, by using psychological manipulation, the terrorists succeed in creating disproportionate anxiety in relation to the actual threat—a kind of irrational panic. While the physical damage caused by terrorism may be statistically less than that of traffic accidents or other mishaps, the atmosphere created by a terrorist act casts a greatly magnified shadow over society, far in excess of its statistical risk to the individual.